Geography Optional for UPSC: Complete Notes (Paper I & II)

Geomorphology

49 notes · Topic-wise PYQs · Unit hub · Terminology series

1. Nature, Scope and Fundamental Concepts of Geomorphology New
2. Universe and Solar System Planets
3. Theories of Origin of the Earth
4. Latitude and Longitude, Standard Time Zones
5. Geological Time Scale
6. Interior of the Earth: Core, Mantle and Crust
7. Discontinuities Inside the Earth
8. Seismic Waves and Earth’s Interior
9. Geomagnetism and Geomagnetic Reversal
10. Factors Controlling Landform Development New
11. Endogenic Forces: Epeirogenic and Orogenic Movements
12. Exogenic Forces: Denudation and Weathering
13. Weathering and Mass Movement New
14. Earth Movements, Folds, Faults, Nappes and Structural Landforms New
15. Landforms: Types of Mountains, Plateaus and Plains New
16. Geosyncline Theory
17. Continental Drift Theory
18. Isostasy and Theories of Isostasy
19. Seafloor Spreading Theory
20. Plate Tectonics Theory
21. Theories of Mountain Building
22. Recent Views on Mountain Building
23. Volcanism and Volcanic Landforms
24. Earthquakes: Causes and Effects
25. Tsunami: Causes and Warning Systems
26. Theories of Landform Development: Gilbert, Hack, Morisawa and Schumm New
27. Geomorphic Cycles and Davis’s Cycle of Erosion
28. Penck’s Model of the Cycle of Erosion
29. Rejuvenation and Polycyclic Landforms New
30. Denudation Chronology
31. Erosion Surfaces: Peneplains, Pediplains and Panplains
32. Slope Elements and Slope Development
33. L.C. King’s Model of Slope Development
34. Alan Wood’s and Strahler’s Views on Slope Development
35. Drainage Basin: Concept, Patterns, Morphometry and Evolution New
36. River Valleys, Graded River and Profile of Equilibrium New
37. Channel Morphology
38. Fluvial Landforms
39. Marine (Coastal) Landforms
40. Karst Landforms
41. Cave and Spring Deposits in Karst Topography New
42. Glacial Landforms
43. Periglacial Landforms
44. Desert (Arid) Landforms
45. Lakes and Types of Lakes New
46. Climatic Geomorphology and Morphogenetic Regions New
47. Quaternary Geomorphology and Pleistocene Glaciation New
48. Applied Geomorphology
49. Anthropogenic and Environmental Geomorphology New

Practise it for marks: solved Geomorphology PYQs from 2013 to 2026, with diagrams, are in the 300+ Score Pack.

Climatology

31 notes · Topic-wise PYQs · Unit hub

1. Climatology: Comprehensive Overview
2. Origin of the Atmosphere
3. Composition and Structure of the Atmosphere
4. Heat Budget of the Earth
5. Temperature Belts of the Earth
6. Temperature Inversion: Types and Effects on Weather
7. Pressure Belts of the Earth
8. Forces Controlling Wind: Pressure Gradient, Coriolis Force and Friction New
9. Winds and Types of Wind
10. Local Winds of the World New
11. General Circulation of the Atmosphere: Tricellular Model, Rossby Waves and Walker Circulation New
12. Jet Streams
13. Origin of Monsoon: Classical to Modern Theories New
14. Atmospheric Stability and Instability New
15. Humidity, Evaporation and Condensation New
16. Clouds and Types of Clouds
17. Precipitation: Types of Precipitation and Rainfall
18. Hydrological Cycle New
19. Air Masses and Source Regions
20. Fronts and Types of Fronts
21. Tropical Cyclones
22. Thunderstorms, Tornadoes and Waterspouts New
23. Temperate (Extratropical) Cyclones
24. Köppen Climate Classification
25. Thornthwaite Climatic Classification
26. Trewartha Climatic Classification
27. Climatic Regions of the World
28. Climatic Change: Evidence, Past Climates and Causes New
29. Global Warming and Man’s Role in Climatic Change New
30. Applied Climatology and Urban Climate New
31. Aurora Borealis and Aurora Australis

Practise it for marks: solved Climatology PYQs from 2013 to 2026, with diagrams, are in the 300+ Score Pack.

Oceanography

26 notes · Topic-wise PYQs · Unit hub

1. Oceanography: Syllabus, Topic Map and PYQ Trends
2. Nature of Oceanography
3. Origin of Ocean Basins
4. Ocean Morphology and Bottom Relief
5. Ocean Relief Features
6. Bottom Topography of the Atlantic Ocean
7. Bottom Topography of the Pacific Ocean
8. Bottom Topography of the Indian Ocean
9. Temperature Distribution of the Oceans
10. Salinity of Ocean Water
11. Density of Ocean Water, Water Masses and the T-S Diagram New
12. Heat and Salt Budgets of the Oceans New
13. Ocean Deposits: Terrigenous and Pelagic Sediments New
14. Ocean Waves
15. Tides
16. Ocean Currents
17. Ocean Currents of the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans New
18. Thermohaline Circulation and the AMOC New
19. El Niño, La Niña and ENSO
20. Ocean (Marine) Resources
21. Coral Reefs and Coral Bleaching
22. Theories of Origin of Coral Reefs
23. Sea-Level Changes
24. Ocean Issues and Threats
25. Marine (Ocean) Pollution
26. UNCLOS: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

Practise it for marks: solved Oceanography PYQs from 2013 to 2026, with diagrams, are in the 300+ Score Pack.

Biogeography

22 notes · Topic-wise PYQs · Unit hub

1. Biogeography: Definition, Scope and Development
2. Soil Genesis: Soil-Forming Processes and Factors
3. Soil Properties: Physical, Chemical and Biological
4. Soil Profile (Soil Horizons)
5. Soil Classification and World Distribution of Soils
6. Soil Erosion, Degradation and Conservation
7. Plant Communities, Ecological Classification of Plants and Plant Succession New
8. World Distribution of Plants and Animals
9. Factors Influencing the Distribution of Plants and Animals
10. Biogeographic Realms and Regions
11. Dispersal, Migration and Barriers New
12. Island Biogeography and Patterns of Species Richness New
13. Biodiversity and Endemism
14. Problems of Deforestation and Conservation Measures
15. Social Forestry and Agroforestry
16. Wildlife: Problems and Conservation
17. Major Gene Pool Centres
18. Human Impacts, Habitat Fragmentation and Landscape Connectivity
19. Biogeography of Climate Change
20. Climate Change Impacts on Species Distributions
21. Climate Change, Range Shifts and Biogeographic Responses
22. Climate Change and Biogeography: Implications and Strategies

Practise it for marks: solved Biogeography PYQs from 2013 to 2026, with diagrams, are in the 300+ Score Pack.

Environmental Geography

34 notes · Topic-wise PYQs · Unit hub

1. Environmental Geography: Nature, Scope and Human–Environment Paradigms
2. Man–Environment Relationship
3. Determinism, Possibilism and Neo-Determinism
4. Marxian View on the Environment
5. Social Production of Nature
6. Deep Ecology vs Shallow Ecology New
7. Fundamental Concepts and Principles of Ecology
8. Ecosystem: Structure, Functions, Energy Flow and Biogeochemical Cycles New
9. Biomes of the World
10. Mountain Ecosystems and High-Altitude Hazards New
11. Human Ecological Adaptations
12. Ecological Adaptive Processes: Kinds of Adaptations
13. Cultural Adaptation of Humans
14. Influence of Man on Ecology and Environment
15. Global and Regional Ecological Changes and Imbalances
16. Ecosystem Management and Conservation
17. Environmental Degradation
18. Environmental Impacts of Large Dams and Mining New
19. Environmental Management
20. PAVE Theory of Environmental Management New
21. Environmental Conservation
22. Biodiversity and Sustainable Development
23. Conservation Measures of Biodiversity
24. Gender and Biodiversity in India
25. Human–Wildlife Conflict New
26. Environmental Policy in India
27. Carbon Neutrality and Net Zero New
28. Environment and Human Health New
29. Environmental Hazards and Remedial Measures
30. Environmental Impact Assessment: Methods and Techniques
31. Social Impact Assessment: Methods and Techniques
32. Environmental Education in India
33. Environmental Legislations in India
34. Environmental Legislation in India: Quick Revision

Practise it for marks: solved Environmental Geography PYQs from 2013 to 2026, with diagrams, are in the 300+ Score Pack.

Perspectives in Human Geography

43 notes · Topic-wise PYQs · Unit hub

1. Meaning, Definition, Aims and Purpose of Geography
2. Evolution of Geographical Thought
3. Paradigms and Paradigm Shifts in Geography New
4. Contribution of Greek Scholars
5. Contribution of Roman and Ancient Chinese Geographers New
6. Contributions of Arab Geographers
7. Impact of Voyages, Discoveries and the Renaissance
8. Geographical Thinking of Varenius and Kant
9. Contributions of Humboldt and Carl Ritter
10. Impact of Darwinism on Geographical Thought New
11. German School of Geographical Thought
12. French School of Geographical Thought
13. British School of Geographical Thought
14. American School of Geographical Thought
15. Russian School of Geographical Thought
16. Evolution of Geographical Thought in India
17. Approaches to Geography: Systematic and Regional
18. Regional Geography vs Systematic Geography
19. Dichotomy and Dualism
20. Areal Differentiation
21. Regional Synthesis
22. Hartshorne vs Schaefer Debate
23. New Regional Geography New
24. Spatial Organisation
25. Space, Place and the Socio-Spatial Dialectic New
26. Environmentalism
27. Neo-Determinism and Probabilism
28. Quantitative Revolution
29. Criticism of Quantification in Geography
30. Locational Analysis
31. Time Geography: Hägerstrand’s Space-Time Paths New
32. Critical Revolution
33. Behavioural Approach
34. Humanistic Approach
35. Radical Approach
36. Welfare Approach
37. Welfare Geography vs Humanistic Geography
38. Postmodern and Feminist Geography New
39. Cultural Regions of the World
40. Culture, Cultural Change and Globalisation New
41. Languages, Religions and Secularisation
42. Human Development Index
43. Social Well-Being and Human Development

Practise it for marks: solved Perspectives in Human Geography PYQs from 2013 to 2026, with diagrams, are in the 300+ Score Pack.

Economic Geography

29 notes · Topic-wise PYQs · Unit hub

1. Economic Geography: Evolution and Approaches
2. Themes in Economic Geography
3. Spatial Concepts: Space, Place and Scale
4. Major Theoretical Perspectives in Economic Geography
5. Geographical Bases of Economic Activities
6. Sectors of the Economy: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary
7. World Economic Development: Measurement and Problems
8. Problems in World Economic Development
9. World Resources and Their Distribution
10. Distribution of Key Natural Resources across the World
11. Global Water Scarcity New
12. Energy Crisis
13. Energy Transition and Energy Security New
14. Limits to Growth Model
15. World Agriculture: Typology of Agricultural Regions
16. Plantation Agriculture New
17. Dryland Farming and Protected Cultivation New
18. World Fisheries New
19. Agricultural Inputs and Productivity
20. Food and Nutrition Problems
21. Food Security
22. Famine: Causes and Effects
23. World Industries: Locational Patterns and Problems
24. World Industrial Regions
25. Global Shift in Manufacturing New
26. The New International Division of Labour (NIDL)
27. Patterns of World Trade
28. The New Economic Geography (NEG)
29. Colonialism, Neo-Colonialism and Lebensraum

Practise it for marks: solved Economic Geography PYQs from 2013 to 2026, with diagrams, are in the 300+ Score Pack.

Population and Settlement Geography

61 notes · Topic-wise PYQs · Unit hub

Population Geography

31 notes · Unit hub

1. Definition and Core Areas of Population Geography
2. Development of Population Geography
3. Development of Population Geography in India
4. Pre-Malthusian Perspectives on Population
5. Growth and Distribution of World Population
6. Population Distribution in the World
7. Population Density and Density Zones
8. Factors Influencing Population Distribution and Density
9. Population Growth in India
10. Population Distribution and Density in India
11. Demographic Attributes
12. Fertility: Measures and Determinants
13. Mortality: Measurements, Trends and Patterns
14. Age Composition of the Population
15. Population Ageing: Dependency Ratio and Longevity New
16. Sex Composition and the Age-Sex Pyramid
17. Economic Composition and Work Participation Rate
18. Religion: Concept, Determinants and Spatial Patterns
19. Caste and Tribe Composition: Concept and Spatial Patterns
20. World Migration: Causes and Consequences
21. Measurements, Trends and Patterns of Migration
22. Theories of Migration
23. Migration in India
24. Over, Under and Optimum Population
25. Optimum Population Theory
26. Neo-Malthusian Theory
27. Epidemiological and Health Transition Theory
28. Health Indicators and Population Problems New
29. Ackerman’s Population-Resource Regions
30. Social Well-Being and Quality of Life
31. Population as Social Capital

Settlement Geography (Paper I and Paper II)

30 notes · Topic-wise PYQs: Paper I, Paper II · Unit hub

1. The Settlement: Meaning, Nature and Concept
2. Origin and Growth of Settlements
3. Settlement Geography: Concept, Evolution and Approaches
4. Theories of the Evolution of Human Settlements
5. Classification of Settlements
6. Rural Settlement and Urban Settlement
7. Rural-Urban Distribution of Population
8. Morphology of Rural Settlement
9. Types of Rural Settlement
10. Patterns of Rural Settlement
11. Social Morphology of Rural Settlements in India
12. Environmental Issues in Rural Settlement
13. Urban Morphology and Its Theories
14. Urban Morphology of Indian Cities
15. Hierarchy of Urban Settlements
16. Classification of Urban Settlements
17. Primate City and Rank-Size Rule
18. Rural-Urban Fringe
19. Sphere of Urban Influence
20. Functional Classification of Towns and Cities
21. Central Place Theory of Christaller and Lösch
22. Conurbations and Metropolitan Regions
23. Satellite Towns
24. Urban Sprawl: Causes and Impacts
25. Contemporary Urban Geography Terminology
26. Slums: Development and Associated Problems
27. Urbanisation: Trends and Patterns
28. Problems and Remedies of Urbanisation
29. Sustainable Development of Cities
30. Town Planning in India: Master Plans, New Towns and Smart Cities

Practise it for marks: solved Population and Settlement Geography PYQs from 2013 to 2026, with diagrams, are in the 300+ Score Pack.

Regional Planning

27 notes · Topic-wise PYQs: Paper I, Paper II · Unit hubs: Paper I, Paper II

1. Concept of Region
2. Types of Regions
3. Methods of Regionalisation
4. Growth Centres and Growth Poles
5. Regional Imbalances
6. Theories of Regional Imbalance
7. Regional Development Strategies
8. Environmental Issues in Regional Planning
9. Planning for Sustainable Development
10. Planning as a Tool to Reduce Regional Imbalance
11. Experience of Regional Planning: Five Year Plans
12. Backward Area Planning
13. Hill Area Development
14. Drought Prone Area Development
15. Tribal Area Development
16. Regional Planning and Development of Island Territories
17. Integrated Rural Development Programme
18. Command Area Development
19. Watershed Management
20. Multi-Level and Decentralised Planning
21. Inclusive Regional Development: Gender and Displacement
22. Backwash Effects
23. Planning Regions of India
24. Aspirational Districts and Blocks Programmes
25. Desert Development Programme
26. Economic Planning in India and NITI Aayog
27. Five Year Plans in India

Practise it for marks: solved Regional Planning PYQs from 2013 to 2026, with diagrams, are in the 300+ Score Pack.

Models, Theories and Laws

16 notes · Topic-wise PYQs · Unit hub

1. Systems Analysis in Geography
2. Malthusian Theory of Population
3. Marxian Theory of Population
4. Demographic Transition Theory
5. Central Place Theories of Christaller and Lösch
6. Von Thünen’s Model of Agricultural Location
7. Weber’s Model of Industrial Location
8. Heartland and Rimland Theories
9. Growth Pole Theory: Perroux and Boudeville
10. Rostow’s Stages of Growth
11. Laws of International Boundaries and Frontiers
12. Organic State Theory (Ratzel)
13. Influence of Sea Power (Mahan)
14. Classical and Contemporary Location Theories
15. Models in Geography
16. Gravity Model in Geography

Practise it for marks: solved Models, Theories and Laws PYQs from 2013 to 2026, with diagrams, are in the 300+ Score Pack.