From the middle of the 19th century up to the contemporary period, there occurred many philosophical changes in the definition, concepts and approaches of the discipline.
The major concepts and methodologies were, however, developed by the Germans followed by the French, British, and American and Soviet scientists.
Early Geographical Thought
Since the Greek-Roman period, determinism has been important concept defining man and environment relationship on the Earth which continued till the second world war. According to this concept, development of people’s social-economic, cultural features largely depends upon natural conditions. Majority of early scholars like Aristotle, Strabo and Hippocrates were determinists. For Example, Aristotle explained the difference between European and Asian in terms of climatic causes.
In medieval time, France scholar Montesquieu viewed that people in a warm climate are timorous, weak in body, indolent and passive. Geographical determinism continued to dominate even in writing of the Arab geographers viz., Al- Masudi, and Ibn- Khaldun.
In the early modern period, Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) supported determinism and clarified the difference between regional communities of people in reference to geographical conditions in their habitats. For instance, he highlighted that people in hot regions are timid and lazy.
German scholars like Ritter (1779-1859) adopted the anthropocentric approach and introduced geographical determinism.
Friedrich Ratzel (1844-1904) also propagated new determinism giving more importance to man than other organisms but environment determinism continued to be a dominant force in a man-environment relationship hence shaping people’s mode of life in different regions. However, His second volume of ‘Anthropogeographie’ analyzed human socio-economic activities and culture in relation to the physical environment which later immensely influenced French geographers like Vidal de la Blache.
Besides the concept of determinism, the later half of the ninetieth century and early decades of twentieth-century show prevailing scientific concepts like deductive approach, Darwin’s theory of evolution, Newtonian cause and effect relationships, which influenced many contemporary geographers in France.
In this background, Geographers like Vidal de la Blache, L. Gallois, Jean Brunhes, Albert Demangeon, Emmanuel De Martonne, Raoul Blanchard, Andre Siegfried, Andre Cholley and Maximilien Sorre laid down the foundation of the modern school in France (France School of Geographical Thought) and established geography as a separate discipline in early of 20th century. French School made Geography as a subject integrating humanities and natural science.
French School of Geographical Thought
The geographical ideas and concepts, which originated with Ratzel and his disciples, spread in the neighbouring countries. Alexander Von Hombolt, who wrote & published his 30 volumes in Paris, created intellectual fervor in French scholars.
In the middle of the 19th century, in France as in Germany, geography was taught by historians, geologists, military personnel and engineers. Even the chair of geography in the Sorbonne (Paris) was occupied by a historian who was attached to the Faculty of Letters.
Phillippe Bauche (1752) was the first French scholar, who criticized the prevalent method of representation of population, economic and other data in administrative units. He felt that the right method of representation of geographical data is in the frame of natural region. According to him, a river basin was the best kind of natural region.
Subsequently, Baron Coquebert (Director of French Statistical office, 1796) proposed a division of the national territory into natural regions with a brief description of each of them. This effort created interest in regional divisions in France.
But this approach was contradicted by Omalius d’Halloy in 1833 who prepared a geological map of France to establish the relationship between landforms and soils and the underlying rocks.
About this time (1870) there occurred a major breakthrough in the expansion of geographical knowledge. Soon several geographical societies were established in the various universities of France. The real take-off in the field of geography in France, however, started during the period of Vidal de La blache.
Key French Geographers & Their Contributions
Phillippe Buache (1700-1773)
He was the first French scholar who led the movement for the evolution of Reine Geography (Pure Geography).
According to him, Geography can only be studied through natural regions demarcated on the Earth surface. He opined that a river basin was the best suited natural regions for geographical study.
For example, spatial analysis of geographical data (socio-economic and cultural features and activities) must be done along with natural region not administrative units.
His proposition motivated French office of statistics to propose a plan for the division of the national territory into natural regions. The effort created interest amongst geographers to study regional divisions in France but later his efforts were opposed by Omalius d’ Halloy in 1833 who prepared a geological map of France indicating a functional relationship between landforms and soils and the underlying rocks across the natural region (River basin).
Jacques Elisee Reclus (1830-1905)
He was a renowned French geographer, prolific writer, and anarchist. Over a period of nearly 20 years (between 1875 and 1994), he was involved in writing world Regional Geography’ (popularly known as Noubvelie Geographic Universelle) and ‘Physical Geography’ (La Terre).
Noubvelie Geographic Universelle dealt with a description of geographic features like rivers and mountains in various countries across the continents and their impacts. This compilation was profusely illustrated with maps, plans, and designs.
Frederic Le Play (1806 -1882)
He was a renowned sociologist. In the light of geographical determinism as a concept, he studied social structures and social orders of European societies under different physical conditions. While discussing habitat-society relationship, he pointed out that each distinct habitat had developed a unique social order and structures.
He further explains that environment, occupation, social types (European societies) had to be studied in association with one another, hence evolved a formula termed Place, work, Folk (or Habitat, economy, and society).
Vidal De La Blache (1845-1918)
Blache is regarded as the father of human Geography and propounder of possibilism.
His areas of interest were human and regional geography. His ‘Regional Geography of the World’ (Geographie Universelle), ‘Geography of France’ (Tableau de la Geographie de la France)and ‘Geography of Eastern France’ (France De la Est) are noteworthy.
His geographical approach was field studies in France, through which he developed a concept of ‘pays’. ‘Pays’ means regional units in rural France which are having unique agricultural patterns due to its specific soil and water supply, economic specialty and people’s demand at surrounding cities.
As per Blache, instead of reducing uniqueness (agricultural difference) of Pays (region), the trade in France accentuated its agriculture distinctively. Each ‘pays’ had unique settlement pattern (compacts or scattered settlement). The uniqueness of pays maintained over generations with specific interaction between the man-environment relationship.
Besides, he published a number of research papers on different regions in the annual journal popularly named Annales de Geographie.
His most impressive work was ‘Principles of Human Geography’ which was published by De Martonne in 1923 after the death of Blache.
This book emphasis on the concept of territorial unity (which means factors operating on the Earth surface are intricately interlinked), understanding the power of environment, its different forms and differences and examining environment’s opportunities (possibilities) for a human being to develop cultural landscape.
Vidal strongly criticized environmental determinism and proposed possibilism as an alternative concept.
Ironically German geographer Ratzel’s second volume of ‘Anthropogeographie’ has profound impacts on Vidal’s writing on the concept of possibilism.
A possibilism is an approach to the study of man and environment relationship. As per possibilism, nature offers opportunities for developing the cultural landscape within the certain limits. How man adjusts and adapts with environment defend distinctive modes of life(Genre de vie).
According to Vidal, there is no reasoning to draw boundaries between natural and cultural phenomena. As they are so closely interlinked, hence united and inseparable.
Blache was so influential personality, after the first world war, the majority of geography departments in French universities were headed by either Blache or his disciples. In the late part of his life, Vidal came to a conclusion that industrial development was cause for vanishing the best things in French life.
E. L. Gallois (1857-1941)
After Blache, L. Gallois became a professor at Sorbonne University. He assisted Blache in publishing Annales de Geographie.
In 1890, Gallois published a research journal ‘Les Geographers alle Mands de la Renaissance’.
During first World war (1914-18), he wrote geographical studies of various regions namely North-east France, Saar region, Middle Egypt and Suez regions.
Emmanuel de Martonne
Emmanuel de Martonne (1873-1955) was a prominent geographer, a disciple of Blache and founder of general physical geography (specially Geomorphology).
He was appointed at Rennes university between 1899-1905 and at Lyon University between 1905-1909.
Later, after the departure of Blache, he was honored with the chair of Geography in Faculty of Letters in Paris.
His aim was to lay the foundation for a general physical geography by merging previously distinct disciplines (cartography, morphology, climatology, botany, and zoology). He also developed an interest in the regional geography of Carpathians and Central Europe and prepared a Volume-IV of Geographie Universelle on this region.
His contribution to geomorphological analysis and naturalistic explanations were of great importance for geographers in France and across the world.
Disciplinary Trends in French Geography
Above stated geographers, various developed various thoughts and set up new disciplinary trends (different branches) in geography like Regional Geography, Human Geography, Colonial Geography, Political Geography and much more.
An account of those disciplinary trends (branches) and major contributing geographers are as follows:
Regional Geography
Regional geography was the most important branch of geography in France.
Vidal de la Blache initiated regional studies through the concept of ‘pays’ (meaning small rural region).
He opposed the concept of Reine Geography and the idea of river basin as a region.
He believed that the man–environment relationship shaped small regions (pays), making each unique and suitable for geographical study.
Other geographers such as L. Gallois and E. De Martonne also made important contributions to regional geography.
Additionally, the prevailing geological and historical study trends supported the growth of regional synthesis.
This led to the acceptance of regional synthesis as a valid approach for geographical analysis.
During this time, regional studies became very popular, and numerous books were written and published:
Vidal de la Blache – Tableau de la Géographie de la France (1903)
Demangeon – Picardie (1905)
E. De Martonne – Les Alps (1926)
E. De Martonne – An Essay on Middle Europe (1930–1931)
R. Blanchard – French Alps
These books provided detailed descriptions of geographical features such as:
Landforms
Climate
Vegetation
Settlement patterns
Other social-cultural structures
Each book highlighted the distinctiveness of regions and their unique man–environment relationships.
Human Geography
Vidal de la Blache – Founder of Human Geography
Human Geography studies man–environment interaction in specific places and across spatial areas.
Vidal de la Blache is regarded as the founder of Human Geography.
His major work: ‘Principles of Human Geography’ (published posthumously).
🔑 Key Concepts from the Book:
Terrestrial Unity:
Earth is a coordinated and organized whole.
All geographical phenomena are interlinked and sequential.
Emphasized unity between natural and cultural landscapes.
Advocated the concept of milieu (man-environment relationship).
Man as a Geographical Factor:
Man is an active agent who adapts, adjusts, and transforms the environment.
Example: Nature doesn’t create agriculture; man modifies the natural landscape to develop it.
Civilization Patterns:
Analyzed the spread of civilization, including transportation networks, cultural regions, and urban centers.
Historical Perspective:
Discussed man–environment relationships across different historical periods.
📘 Structure of the Book (3 Volumes):
Volume 1: Population distribution, density, and migration.
Volume 2: Development of civilization under environmental influences.
Volume 3: Transportation and communication systems.
Jean Brunhes (1868–1930) – Follower of Blache
Prominent French human geographer.
Focused on rural settlements—their shape, size, and structure in France.
Authored: ‘Géographie Humaine: Essai de Classification Positive’ (1910).
📌 Three Key Sections in the Book:
Unproductive Occupation of Soil:
Covered spatial distribution and types of houses, urban morphology, agglomeration, and road networks.
Stressed that land may be used productively or unproductively.
Conquest of Plant and Animal World:
Described domestication, pastoral nomadism, and transhumance.
Explained how humans tamed nature for food and livelihood.
Destructive Economy (Robbery Economy):
Highlighted unsustainable exploitation of resources (e.g., mining, deforestation).
Resulted in pollution, resource depletion, and economic poverty.
📌 Additional Contributions:
Studied spatial distribution of races, and social, political, and historical factors.
Proposed two principles:
Principle of Activities – Physical and cultural phenomena are dynamic (e.g., change in sea levels, forests).
Principle of Interaction – All Earth phenomena are interrelated and coordinated, based on Blache’s Terrestrial Unity.
Albert Demangeon (1872–1940) – Continued Human Geography Tradition
Published ‘Geography of Picardy’ in 1905.
Became a professor at Sorbonne University in 1911.
Studied rural settlements, agricultural practices, and land-use patterns.
Proposed that mode of agriculture determines the shape, size, and pattern of settlements.
📘 ‘Problems of Human Geography’ (Published posthumously in 1942):
Focused on the interplay between society and environment.
Considered humans as modifiers of the environment.
🔑 Four Main Themes:
Natural Regions and Lifestyles:
People exhibit different lifestyles based on natural regional characteristics.
Techniques and Practices:
Discussed hunting, gathering, agriculture, and industrial methods across various regions.
Settlements:
Analyzed distribution, density, types, and boundaries of human settlements.
Human–Environment Relationship:
Examined how societies adapt to and modify their environment.
📚 Other Works:
Authored books on British Islands, Holland, and Belgium.
Urban Geography
A number of scholars in France were interested in the geographical study of towns and cities.
Demangeon and Gallois:
Conducted geographical studies of Paris city.
Their work focused on the urban form, growth, and spatial structure of the capital.
Levainville:
In 1923, studied the cities of Rouen and Caen in France.
His research emphasized urban characteristics and development patterns of these cities.
Raoul Blanchard:
Professor of geography at Grenoble.
In 1911, wrote the book ‘Urban Geography of Grenoble’:
Explained the situation, historical progress, and current structural development of the city.
In 1922, published a research paper on the methodology of urban geography.
Authored urban geographical works on various French cities including:
Lille
Nancy
Lyons
Marseilles
Nice
Bordeaux
Jean Gottmann (1915–1994):
A noted French geographer who gained fame for his influential work:
‘Megalopolis: The Urbanized Seaboard of the United States’
A regional geographical study.
Covered historical, physical, economic, and political aspects of U.S. cities.
In 1962, he also published a study of metropolitan regions in Europe.
Political Geography
André Siegfried:
A prominent professor of Political and Economic Geography in France.
Analyzed how geographical factors influence electoral politics and the formation of political parties.
His work ‘Tableau Politique de la France’ (Political Geography of France) became:
A foundational text for political geography in France.
Authored ten books on a wide range of countries and topics, including:
England
USA
Latin America
New Zealand
Suez Canal
Panama Canal
Mediterranean Sea
Jacques Ancel:
A renowned political geographer of France.
Authored the comprehensive ‘Political Geography of Europe’ in three volumes.
Other notable works:
‘Geopolitics’ – published in 1936
‘Geography of Frontier’ – published in 1938
These works significantly elevated his reputation as a leading political geographer in France.
Colonial Geography
Historical Background
After France’s defeat by Germany in 1870, the country sought to compensate for its territorial losses through colonization.
France expanded its colonial rule in Africa and South-East Asia.
To manage and sustain these colonies, geographical knowledge of the newly acquired lands was essential.
Origin of Colonial Geography in France
This need for geographical understanding led to the emergence of Colonial Geography as a distinct field in France.
The first colonial geographer was M. Dubois:
Authored numerous articles on colonies.
Founded a study center for French colonies at Sorbonne University (Paris).
Worked with the French Geographical Society, which helped in the dissemination of colonial knowledge.
Played a major role in French colonial expansion (1871–1881).
Institutional Expansion
By 1902, universities in various French cities began establishing colonial study centers, including:
Lyons
Paris
Bordeaux
Caen
Lille
Albert Demangeon – Notable Colonial Geographer
A prominent contributor to colonial geography.
Authored the book ‘L’Empire Britannique’ (The British Empire) published in 1923.
This work focused on the colonial geography of the British Empire, adding a comparative and critical dimension to French colonial studies.
Physical Geography
Emmanuel de Martonne – Leading Physical Geographer
Renowned for his contributions to physical geography in France.
Authored important foundational works:
‘Traité de Géographie Physique’ (1909)
‘Les Alps’ (1926)
‘La Géographie Physique de la France’ (Physical Geography of France)
Other Notable Contributors
Raoul Blanchard:
Contributed to physical geography through various works focused on landscape analysis.
Jean Tricart:
Known for his research papers on geomorphology.
His work enriched the scientific understanding of landforms and physical processes in geography.
Conceptual Shift: From Determinism to Possibilism
Alongside the development of physical geography, Possibilism emerged as a major geographical concept in France.
It was formulated as a response to Environmental Determinism, which was dominant in Germany.
Possibilism emphasized that:
While nature sets limits, human beings have the freedom to choose among various possibilities.
It highlighted the role of culture, technology, and societal decisions in shaping the use of environment.
Evolution of a New Concept: Possibilism
Vidal de la Blache proposed the concept of Possibilism. He opposed environmental determinism as a geographical approach to study the man–environment relationship.
According to Possibilism:
Nature offers numerous possibilities for human beings within set limits.
It does not mean complete freedom, but humans can make decisions among various natural possibilities.
Possibilism holds that:
Each group of people living in a particular place has a distinctive way of life (genres de vie).
This genre de vie shapes the man–environment relationship.
French historian Lucien Febvre elaborated on this idea:
He pointed out that “there are no necessities, but everywhere possibilities.”
Man is free to use or not use these possibilities for a better livelihood and life.
Blache and Febvre emphasized:
Nature is not mandatory but permissive.
Human beings have the ability to exert some independent control over their destinies.
This idea laid the foundation for humanistic geography.
Conclusion:
Geographers in France introduced several new thoughts, approaches, and trends.
Their efforts helped shape modern, scientific geography.
Many of these concepts remain relevant today.
Current Trends in French Geography
Over time, the Vidalienne tradition has faded, but regional studies still remain a significant approach in French geography.
Geography is shifting from general to specific (scientific) trends.
There is an increasing use of quantitative techniques, making geography more applied and analytical.
Recent trends in French geography show a strong focus on: Critical theories related to Phenomenology (the study of lived human experiences in spatial contexts) and Hermeneutics (the interpretation of social and spatial meanings).
These trends have made the subject more relevant to current social, cultural, and environmental issues.
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