Early Origins of Geographical Thinking with Reference to Varenius and Kant

The Renaissance and the Beginning of Scientific Geography

• The Renaissance laid the foundation of scientific geography in the early 17th century.
• It was a period of voyages of explorations and inventions that cleared several prevalent earlier geographical misconceptions through new information that flooded in.
• Hence, this was the beginning of the ‘pre-classical period’ of modern geography that continued through the 18th century as well.
• Several conceptual developments took place at this time. The most notable among them were:
  • Laws of Motion by a German astronomer, Johannes Kepler in 1618.
  • Acceptance of Copernicus’ concept of a heliocentric universe by Galileo in 1623. He also tried to describe the universe in terms of mathematical laws in contrast to the teleological concept of Aristotle.
  • Law of Gravitation by Isaac Newton in 1686.
• “Kepler, Galileo and Newton sowed the seeds of scientific revolution that marked the beginning of specialization” (Tatham, 1967).
• However, a major problem faced by contemporary scholars was to relate specific pieces of information to general principles.
• Hence, this was also the period which gave rise to dualism and dichotomies in geography which are prevalent even today.
• At the same time, there were some efforts to revive the tradition of Greek and Roman periods. This was very much evident in the works of Peter Apian, Sebastian Munster, or Phillipp Cluver, all of whom maintained the concept of a geocentric universe.
  • Peter Apian also supported the Aristotelian concept of the ekumene or the zone of habitability.
  • Sebastian Munster, known for his work ‘Cosmographia Universalis’, followed the classical Roman tradition of historical geography and totally excluded mathematical and physical geography in his work.
  • Phillipp Cluver, who carried forward the same tradition as Munster, was the first German geographer to formulate universal geography and at the same time made significant contributions in regional geography in his work ‘Introduction in Universam Geographiam.’ He also made a distinction between geography and chorography.
• The most significant contribution during this period was however made by Bernhard Varenius which influenced the discipline of geography for more than a century.

Bernhard Varenius (1622–1650)

• Born in 1622, near Hamburg in Germany, Bernhard Varenius studied philosophy, mathematics and physics at the University of Hamburg between 1640 and 1643.
• Thereafter, he moved to the University of Konigsberg to study medicine and then to Leiden for the same.
• Varenius renewed the mathematical tradition in geography.
• In fact, he was so impressed with the mathematical works of Kepler, Galileo and Newton that he vehemently criticized those who reduced geography to a mere description of countries.

Contributions to Geography:

• He may be credited for pioneering several developments in the subject matter of geography:
  • He was one of the first scholars to highlight on the differences in the nature and content of physical and human geography, though he himself was not much interested in the latter.
  • This was because human geography could not be subjected to mathematical laws to generate universal principles.
  • He believed that the methods of the natural sciences could be successfully used to draw conclusions about natural phenomena with precision to a considerable extent.
  • But they could not be applied to human groups as they were more subjected to probability than certainty.
  • Varenius opined that generalisations regarding human groups should be restricted to a particular time and space.
• Using the terms of Bartholomew Keckermann, a German philosopher, he partitioned geography into—
  • Special geography essentially concerned with the description of particular places on the basis of direct observations.
    • This branch of geography was assumed to have great practical importance for governance and commerce.
  • General geography based on universally applicable mathematical or astronomical laws.
• Hence, Varenius’ contributions eventually gave rise to the dualisms and dichotomies between physical and human geography, and more importantly between regional (special) and systematic (universal) geography, though he asserted that they were mutually interdependent branches of geography.
• He stressed that special geography provided the database based on which general geography could infer the general hypotheses and laws.
• Varenius was the first to describe the differences in the amount of insolation received at different latitudes on the earth and pointed out that the highest temperatures on the earth were recorded in the hot deserts of the tropical areas and not in the equatorial belt.
• He was also one of the first to explain the world’s wind systems.
  • Varenius stated that the air masses close to the equator were heated up and thinned out to be replaced by cold and heavy air masses from the polar regions.

Notable Works:

• In 1649, Varenius wrote his first book, ‘Description Regni Laponiae et Siam’ (Regional description of Japan and Siam).
  • It was an outcome of his interaction with the Dutch traders engaged in international trade while residing at Amsterdam with an assignment of a private tutor.
  • Amsterdam was then the commercial hub of Netherlands while Nagasaki in Japan was a Dutch trading post.
  • The book comprised of five parts:
    • A description of Japan.
    • A description of Siam (Thailand) being translated into Latin.
    • A description of the religions of Japan.
    • Some information on the religions of Africa.
    • A short essay on the governments dealing with places and people.
• This was followed by another exclusive volume on the religions of Japan.
• However, Varenius’ most significant contribution was his book, ‘Geographia Generalis’ (1650) which was one of the first attempts to combine three branches of geography—general (systematic), mathematical and physical—and, chorology (science of space).
  • This book consisted of three parts:
    • The absolute or terrestrial part dealing with the shape and size of the earth as well as the physical geography of continents, seas and the atmosphere.
    • The relative or the cosmic part describing the relation between the earth and other celestial bodies especially the sun and its effects on global climate.
    • The comparative part focusing on the principles of navigation and the location of different places in relation to each other.
• In the preface of Geographia Generalis, Varenius advocated that the description of particular places should take into consideration the:
  • Celestial conditions—climate.
  • Terrestrial conditions—relief, soil, vegetation and biotic life.
  • Human conditions—population, settlement, trade, forms of government.
• Varenius’ Geographia Generalis could have had a second volume, but it could not be completed owing to his untimely and premature death in 1650.
• This book was translated into several editions in Latin.

Main Advancements in Geography in the 17th Century:

• Discovery of new places.
• More precision in the art of map-making.
  • Special mention: Gerardus Mercator developed his projection based on the true azimuth (bearing) of places on the earth’s surface that provided a great aid in navigation.
• Development of general or systematic geography.

Post-Varenius Period (Prominent Scholars):

• John Ray (1627–1705):
  • Developed systematic study of botany and an empirical classification of plants.
  • Asserted that water running down mountain slopes acts as an agent of transportation of earth materials.
• John Strachey:
  • In 1719, explained how landforms reflected the underlying structure.
• Domenico Guglielmini:
  • Studied the laws of river flow.

Geography in the 18th Century

• Shift Towards Scientific Geography:
  • The 18th century marked a significant transition in geographical studies.
  • Emphasis shifted towards natural sciences grounded in empirical knowledge.
  • This approach facilitated a more scientific description of the Earth’s surface.
  • It paved the way for new advancements in geography.
• Evolution of Landform Explanation:
  • Catastrophism, the earlier explanation for landform development, was superseded.
  • Uniformitarianism, proposed by Scottish geologist James Hutton (1726-1797), gained prominence.
    • Key Concept: Geomorphic processes operating today are the same as those in the past.
    • These processes are responsible for the visible landforms on Earth.
  • In 1786, Louis Gabriel ‘Comte de Bant’ (France) developed the concept of ‘graded profile’.
    • Key Concept: A state of equilibrium between a river’s flow velocity and its alluvial load.
• Key Geographical Developments:
  • Rise of the politico-statistical approach:
    • Focus on the state and its attributes, often involving data collection and analysis for governance.
  • Rise of reine (pure) geography:
    • Emphasis on understanding the Earth’s physical and human phenomena for their own sake, moving beyond immediate practical applications.
  • Development of practical and scientific methods:
    • Increased use of observation, data collection, and systematic analysis.
    • Integration of findings from other sciences like botany and geology.
  • Foundation of a philosophical base in geography:
    • Exploration of the fundamental questions about the nature of geographical knowledge and its relationship with other disciplines.

Prominent Geographers and Their Contributions:

• Comte de Buffon (1707-1788):
  • His monumental work, ‘Historie naturelle generale et particuliere’, was completed by La Cepede (published 1749-1804).
  • Based on descriptions from travelers and explorers worldwide.
  • Employed a non-mathematical and inductive approach.
  • Identified man as an agent of change on the Earth’s surface.
  • Emphasized the need for forest conservation to maintain Earth’s temperature balance.
• Johann Rheinhold Forster (1729-1798) and Johann George Forster (1754-1794):
  • Pioneered a scientific and practical approach.
  • Accompanied Captain Cook’s second voyage (1772-75).
  • Conducted botanical observations leading to generalizations with causal explanations.
  • Rheinhold Forster published ‘Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World’ (1778):
    • Covered diverse themes: (i) the earth and its lands; (ii) water and oceans; (iii) atmosphere; (iv) areal differences; (v) vegetation and animals; and (vi) races of mankind.
  • Rheinhold Forster is considered the first methodological geographer of modern geography.
  • George Forster was the first to identify similarities between west European and west North American climate.
  • He also noted temperature patterns on the eastern and western parts of continents at the same latitude.
  • The Forster duo had the advantage of first-hand data collection.
  • They were critical of the deterministic view of climate influencing human life.
• Transition to ‘Reine Geographie’ (Pure Geography):
  • Early 18th-century geography was utilitarian, focused on describing historical events and governments.
  • The influx of new information and empirical knowledge led to geography overcoming its subordinate position to history.
  • Emergence of ‘reine geographie or pure geography’.
  • Shift from political units to natural or physical units for description.
  • Focus on landerkunde (land) and staatenkunde (people).

Proponents of ‘Reine Geographie’:

• Philippe Buache (1700-1773):
  • Formulated the concept of Earth divided into river basins surrounded by continuous mountain ranges.
  • Mountains act as drainage divides.
  • These ranges continue beneath oceans as strings of islands or submerged sand banks.
  • Exampled by the rivers of Europe.
• Johann Cristophe Gatter (1727-1799):
  • Carried forward Buache’s views.
  • Identified river basins as natural regions.
• Anton Friedrich Busching (1724-1793):
  • Greatly influenced by the politico-statistical approach.
  • Extensive use of statistical materials in his ‘Neue Erdbeschreibung’ (1792).
  • Used population density as a geographic element.
  • Credited with propounding the theory of economic interdependence between countries.
  • Recognized water transportation as the cheapest mode of transport.
• H.G.Hommeyer:
  • Abandoned political boundaries.
  • Divided the Earth’s surface into ‘terrains’, which were natural regions, mostly river basins.
• Johann August Zeune (1778-1853):
  • Attempted to discover the interrelationship between human beings and the biotic life of an area.
  • Sought to redefine the Earth’s surface based on relief, climate, and vegetation.

Philosophical Influence:

• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) provided a different orientation to scientific geography from a philosophical standpoint. (Kant’s contributions to philosophy and his views on space and time had a significant impact on the conceptual foundations of geography.)

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

• Born in Konigsberg, East Prussia (Russia).
• A renowned philosopher with significant contributions to astronomy, geology, and geography.
• Unlike Forster, Kant was primarily an ‘armchair geographer’, his geographical insights were not based on direct field observations.
• Key Contribution:
  • Laid the philosophical foundation of geography, defining its nature in relation to the natural sciences.
• Academic and Professional Life:
  • Major interests included philosophy, mathematics, and natural sciences.
  • Worked as a private tutor (1746-1755) after graduating from the University of Konigsberg.
  • Awarded a Ph.D. in 1755 and subsequently appointed as a lecturer at the same university.
  • Lectured proficiently in diverse fields: philosophy, mathematics, physics, mechanics (hydrostatics, hydrokinetics), and military sciences (fortification, pyro-techniques).
  • Offered a regular course on physical geography from 1756 to 1796.
  • Believed that the study of geography was crucial for the empirical knowledge needed for his philosophical inquiries.
  • Due to the perceived inadequate development of geography, he focused on accumulating and organizing information from various sources.
  • Concentrated on specific geographical problems, such as the deflection of winds due to Earth’s rotation. (This early interest in atmospheric circulation and its causes is a precursor to modern meteorology and climatology within geography.)
  • Became Professor of Logic and Metaphysics at the University of Konigsberg in 1770.
  • Declined similar positions at the universities of Erlangen and Jena, preferring to stay in Konigsberg.
  • Served as a member of the Board of Governors (1780) and Vice-Chancellor (1786) at the University of Konigsberg.

Geographical Insights in His Works:

• Early works like ‘General Natural history and the Theory of the Heavens’ (1755) were primarily focused on speculative astronomy.
• Treatises on earthquakes also mainly dealt with the Earth’s interior.
• Geographical references appeared in later works:
  • ‘Critique of Pure Reason’ (1781)
  • ‘Critique of Judgement’ (1798)
  • Essay ‘Anthropology from Pragmatic Point of View’ (1798): Contained detailed geographical descriptions of races and ethnic groups worldwide. (This early anthropological geography, though based on secondary sources, reflects the growing interest in human diversity and its spatial distribution.)
• In ‘Critique of Pure Reason’, Kant freed geography from its close bond with theology by rejecting the teleological concept. (This was a crucial step in establishing geography as a more objective and scientific discipline, moving away from divine explanations.)
• This marked the end of the Aristotelian era in geography.
• Kant emphasized that explanations for phenomena should be based on chronologically antecedent events.

Kant’s View on the Role of Geography:

• Believed that the geography of a place significantly influenced the progress of human civilization. (This highlights an early understanding of the interplay between environment and human development, a central theme in human geography.)
• The physical geography developed by Kant was essentially ‘anthropocentric’ in nature and content.
• According to him, physical geography included both natural features and those created by human actions.
• This viewpoint was likely influenced by Buffon’s ‘Historie Naturelle’ and later adopted by Ritter.
• Kant considered physical geography as the first part of world knowledge, essential for understanding the Earth as the abode of humans and for furthering philosophical studies.

Kant’s Epistemology(Theory of Knowledge) and Geography:

• Kant believed empirical knowledge could be obtained through:
  • Pure reason
  • Senses:
    • Inner senses (perceiving the seele/soul or mensch/man) – related to anthropology (analogous to modern Psychology).
    • Outer senses (perceiving Nature) – related to physical geography.

Classification of Knowledge:

• Logical classification: Based on morphological similarities, leading to systematic sciences (e.g., zoology, geology, sociology).
• Physical classification: Based on items belonging to the same time or space.
  • Differentiated history (related to time, studying phenomena that follow one another – nachienander/chronological) from geography (related to space, studying phenomena spread beside each other – nebeneinander/chorological).
  • Individual experience is limited by time and space, requiring supplementation from others’ experiences.
  • Knowledge derived indirectly is either narrative (history) or descriptive (geography).
  • Thus, history and geography constitute the entirety of empirical knowledge related to time and space.

Relationship Between Geography and History:

• Resolved the question of primacy by asserting that both existed in all periods.
• Considered geography as a subset of history.
• Argued that ancient history implied the existence of ancient geography to explain historical events.
• Physical geography, concerned with Nature, formed the foundation of history and all plausible geographies.

Kant’s Concept of Space:

• In his ‘Critique of Pure Reason’, Kant argued that space is not objective or real, nor a substance.
• It is subjective and essentially a mental construct.
• Governed by an unchanging law, providing a framework for coordinating perceived things and events.

Kant and Exceptionalism:

• Rightly regarded as the ‘father of exceptionalism’.
• Opposed generalizations, believing history and geography were methodologically different from other sciences.
• Focused on the study of the unique and the ‘exceptional’, rather than universal laws.. (This emphasis on the uniqueness of places and historical events laid the groundwork for regional geography and idiographic approaches.)

Influence and Legacy:

• Neo-Kantianism emerged in 19th-century Germany, attempting to differentiate between historical/cultural sciences and natural sciences.
• This contributed to another dualism in geography:
  • Natural sciences: dealt with externally sensed, explainable objects (nomothetic).
  • Cultural/historical sciences: dealt with mental constructs needing understanding (idiographic).
• Idiographic (empirical) approach: Focused on describing particular places and their relations without seeking laws.
• Nomothetic (deductive) approach: Sought to establish universal laws relevant to locations and make deductions.
• Pioneered several other branches of geography:
  • Mathematical geography: Earth’s shape, size, form, movements, and position in the solar system.
  • Moral geography: Customs and traditions of humans in different places.
  • Political geography: Interrelationship between political units and their physical setup.
  • Commercial geography: Reasons for the abundance/deficiency of commodities and the rise of international trade.
  • Theological geography: Analysis of changes in theological principles across spatial units.
• Believed cartographic representation was not crucial for physical geography, even if maps existed, they were mainly for pedagogical purposes.
• Placed geography in a central position among the sciences.
• In modern human geography, the development of the ‘possibilistic approach’ of the French school and ‘humanistic geography’ can be attributed to Kantianism.
• His principles were initially opposed and his philosophical basis was almost forgotten until revived by Hettner and Hartshorne.
• While sharp divisions between sciences are now blurred due to interdisciplinarity, many early geographers implicitly followed Kant by emphasizing human influence on physical features.

Conclusion:

• Varenius and Kant together transformed geography from a descriptive tradition into a systematic and philosophical discipline.
• Diverse viewpoints (political, statistical, pure) marked the end of traditional thinking and paved the way for scientific advancements in the discipline.
  • Their ideas led to important debates:
    • Physical vs. Human Geography
    • Systematic vs. Regional Geography
    • Nomothetic vs. Idiographic Science
• This period laid the groundwork for the development of scientific geography in the subsequent decades.