Contributions of Alexander von Humboldt (1769-1859)

  • Marks the beginning of the Classical Period of Modern Geography along with Carl Ritter (1779-1859).
  • Considered one of the founders of modern geography.
  • Represented one of the two different approaches in the study of Geography (the other being Ritter’s).
  • Shared many views with Ritter, and their exchange of views was crucial for the development of geography.
  • Early Life and Education:
    • Studied at the Universities of Frankfurt, Gottingen, and Hamburg.
    • Trained as a mining engineer.
    • Also studied Geology and Botany.
    • Travelled extensively across various countries in Europe and Latin America.
    • Minutely observed natural phenomena, sparking his interest in studying Geography.

Contribution to Systematic Academic Discipline:

  • His contribution to developing geography as a systematic academic discipline was seminal.
  • Considered a versatile scholar.
  • His interests spanned multi-disciplinary fields: geology, mineralogy, vulcanology, earth magnetism, meteorology, botany, and geography.
  • Employed an inductive and empirical methodology based on scientific observation of phenomena in the physical world.
  • Accepted the view of the Earth as one inseparable organic whole with mutually interdependent parts (Zusammenhang in German).
  • Established theories based on intensive field work.
  • Collected extensive data on various aspects of landforms and physical phenomena.
  • Classified and analyzed this data to arrive at conclusions.
  • His field of inquiry was the observable world of phenomena.
  • Distinguished between:
    • ‘Physiographia’: Systematic natural sciences.
    • ‘Naturgeschichte’: Natural history emphasizing the development of things over time.
    • ‘Geognosie or Weltbeschreibung’: Discussed spatial distribution.
  • Published ‘Geognosia’ in 1793, establishing the interrelationship of organic and inorganic phenomena on Earth. (This work is considered a foundational text in modern geography, emphasizing the interconnectedness of Earth’s systems.)
  • The concept of interdependence of things and phenomena is known as ‘Zusammenhang’.
  • Made composite studies of rocks, animals, and plants concerning their origins and geographic distribution.
  • Reflected causal relationships in the areal combination of both natural and organic phenomena at a specific place or region.

Major Publications:

  • Kosmos (1845): His most significant publication.
  • Atlas Geographique et Physique du Nouveau Continent (1814-19).

Categorization of Knowledge:

  • Proposed three categories of knowledge division:
    • Physiographic: Taxonomical examination of phenomena (e.g., botany, zoology, geology) – the systematic sciences.
    • Historical sciences: Dealt with the development of existing phenomena (e.g., history of animals, plants, rocks).
    • Geognosy or Earth Science: Defined variously as Erdkunde, theorie de la terre, geographie, physique, physiche Erdbeschreibung, or physical geography. (This categorization highlights Humboldt’s attempt to position geography within the broader spectrum of scientific inquiry.)
      • Concerned with the distribution or arrangement of phenomena on the Earth’s surface.
      • Always emphasized the areal association of natural and organic phenomena.

Contributions to Sub-Branches of Geography:

  • Made significant contributions to various sub-branches: climatology, plant geography, orography, oceanography, cartography, etc.
  • Invented the term ‘climatology’.
  • Used the comparative method in his analysis of facts.

View on Humans and Landscape:

  • Included (hu)man and human works in his study of nature and natural areas.
  • Did not consider humans as the primary determinant in shaping the landscape.
  • Mentioned towns, villages, fields, and crops as elements of landscape viewed holistically.
  • Developed a scientific method of investigation to understand the spatial variation of both physical and cultural phenomena.
  • Focused on the interrelation and interdependence of elements.
  • During travels to Mexico, Venezuela, and Cuba, studied native civilizations and wrote political essays considered models for human geography.
  • Adhered to the principles of unity and causality in all his studies.
  • Considered the founder of the concept of humanism in geography. (This emphasizes Humboldt’s view of humans as an integral part of nature, a perspective that influenced later humanistic approaches in geography.)

‘Kosmos’ and its Significance:

  • His erudite scholarship is incomplete without discussing his book Kosmos Vol I & II (1845 & 1847), Vol III & IV (1850 & 1858), and the unfinished Vol V (1862).
  • Main theme: Portraying unity in diversity and depicting human beings as a constituent part of nature.
  • A vast compilation of his travel experiences and observations of physical phenomena.
  • Humboldt believed in the balance of nature, with (hu)man as an integral part.

Contributions of Carl Ritter (1779-1859):

  • Born in Quedlinburg, Germany.
  • Studied at the University of Halle and later at the University of Gottingen.
  • Became a Professor of Geography at the University of Berlin (1820) and at the Royal Military Academy in Berlin for the rest of his life.
  • Another great scholar of the contemporary period who significantly influenced geographical thought.
  • His ideas of geography as an empirical and descriptive science initiated the great debate of dichotomy within the subject in subsequent decades.

Methodology and Key Concepts:

  • Employed an inductive and empirical methodology.
  • Emphasized the interdependence of things and phenomena.
  • Clarified the hierarchy in the spatial arrangement of terrestrial phenomena.
  • Stated that the uniqueness of geography lies in characterizing and explaining the areal associations of terrestrial phenomena in unit areas of different orders (from smallest to major generic regions).
  • His scientific geography was guided by the concept of unity in diversity in nature.
  • Aimed not merely to inventory co-occurring phenomena but to understand the interconnections and causal interrelations that made areal associations cohesive.
  • Believed the geographer’s task was to trace causation and interdependence of spatially distributed phenomena.
  • Insisted that geography must be an empirical science.
  • Held a holistic view regarding the content and purpose of geographic study, with human beings as the central focus.
  • Believed in areal synthesis and description, positioning him as a regionalist.
  • His works aimed at a detailed interpretation of regional geography with complete details of areal units through thorough sifting and synthesis.
  • Pursued the idea of ‘zusamenhang’ (harmonious unity and interconnection among diverse phenomena). (This German term encapsulates Ritter’s holistic and interconnected view of the Earth’s systems and their spatial manifestations.)

Major Publications:

  • Published two volumes on the geography of Europe.
  • Published the first two volumes of ‘Erdkunde’ (1817 and 1818).
    • Intended as a text on “The Science of the Earth in Relation to Nature and History of Mankind or General Comparative Geography as the solid foundation for the study of and instruction in the Physical and Historical Sciences”.
  • Added six more volumes to the Erdkunde series (1832-1838).
  • Eleven more volumes were published (1838-1859).
  • These nineteen volumes covered Africa and Asia by the time of his death in 1859. (Value Addition: The sheer volume and scope of ‘Erdkunde’ represent a monumental effort in compiling and synthesizing geographical knowledge of vast regions.)

Ritter’s Geographical Concepts:

  • Believed the methodology of geography is based on a posteriori principle (inductive reasoning), not a priori principle.
  • Highlighted that geographical phenomena are unique, giving regions a distinct identity.
  • Emphasized the spatial arrangement of phenomena.
  • Tried to establish interconnections between sets of phenomena in the same area (areal association) and between different places (spatial interaction).
  • His philosophical viewpoint was teleological.
    • Teleology: Understanding events in relation to their underlying purpose.
    • Ritter believed God is the planner of the universe, and scientists must uncover the God-given purpose for humanity. (This teleological perspective, while influential in his time, contrasts with Humboldt’s more purely scientific approach and was later widely criticized for its lack of empirical testability.)
    • In contrast, Humboldt remained rooted in scientific explorations relating events to their environment.
  • Despite criticism of his teleology, his scholarship was impeccable, based on personal observations and collated studies.
  • Quote: ‘My system builds on facts, not on philosophical arguments’.

Comparison with Humboldt:

  • Both Ritter and Humboldt were responsible for the systematic collation of facts and their interpretation, a significant departure from unsystematized data accumulation.
  • Both believed in the unity of the universe but were aware of its diversities.
  • This led Ritter to compare continents and regions to find similarities and differences and explore underlying causes.
  • Considered the founder of the comparative method in regional geography, although Ritter himself credited Humboldt.
  • Ritter strongly favored incorporating historical factors (physical and human) to understand the relationship between human society and nature in different settings.
  • Made historical development in geographical space the main theme of his educational task. (This emphasis on the historical dimension of human-environment interaction distinguishes Ritter’s approach and highlights the temporal context of geographical phenomena.)
AspectAlexander von HumboldtCarl Ritter
Life Span1769–18591779–1859
NationalityGermanGerman
TitleFather of Modern Physical GeographyFather of Modern Human Geography / Regional Geography
Key FocusPhysical environment and its scientific understandingHuman-environment relationship, regional geography
ApproachEmpirical, inductive, and scientificTeleological, deductive, moralistic
Methodology– Emphasized direct field observation, measurement, and data collection.

– Advocated for causal explanations: “the why of where.”

– Used instruments (barometer, thermometer, etc.) in research.
– Emphasized historical and regional study.- Believed geographical phenomena must be studied in terms of purpose and design (teleology).

– Advocated geography as a moral and theological discipline.
Philosophical OrientationScientific and rationalist. Sought to explain Earth through natural laws and observable facts.Idealist and theocentric. Saw geography as a means to understand God’s design and mankind’s moral progress.
Major Work“Cosmos” (1845–1862)
– A synthesis of Earth’s physical phenomena
– Integrated astronomy, meteorology, and geology
– Emphasized unity in nature.
“Die Erdkunde” (The Earth Science)
– A 19-volume work (unfinished)
– Focused on regional descriptions and interrelation between geography and civilization
View on Geography– Geography should identify universal laws.

– Geography is part of natural sciences.

– Emphasized systematic geography.
– Geography is a moral and interpretive science.

– Focused on regional geography.

– Believed in environmental influence on history and society.
Subject Matter– Studied isotherms, altitudinal zonation, plant geography, and climatology.

– Introduced natural regions based on climate and vegetation.
– Studied regions holistically, linking physical geography with cultural, historical, and religious attributes.

– Advocated chorological (place-based) understanding.
Contribution to SubfieldsClimatology, biogeography, geomorphology.

– Established causal relationships in physical geography.
Human geography, regional geography, historical geography.

– Set foundation for environmental determinism.
Use of Field WorkExtensively used fieldwork. Travelled to Latin America, the Andes, Russia, etc.Rarely conducted fieldwork; relied on historical records and traveler’s accounts.
Legacy– Laid foundation for systematic and scientific geography.

– Influenced geographers like Ratzel, Hettner, Ritter himself.
– Laid foundation for regional and human geography.

– Influenced the development of environmental determinism and later possibilism.
Quote“Geography is the science that locates things and explains their cause.”“Earth is the dwelling place of man, created by divine will, and geography is the science that reveals its purpose.”
Comparison: Humboldt vs. Ritter

Dichotomies or Dualisms in geography

  • Emergence of Dualisms:
    • From its early stages, geography’s evolution from celestial to terrestrial science involved different streams of thought.
    • Dualisms emerged concerning:
      • Subject matter: What should geography study?
      • Approach to study: How should geographical phenomena be investigated?
      • Methodology: What methods should be used to study human-environment relationships?
  • Dualisms in Subject Matter:
    • Physical versus Human Geography: Should geography focus on the physical setup of space, the human beings inhabiting that space, or both?
  • Dualisms in Approach:
    • General Principles versus Unique and Particular Phenomena/Events: Should geography aim to establish universal laws or focus on describing the distinctiveness of places?
    • Regional versus Systematic Geography: Should the focus be on comprehensive studies of specific areas or on the study of particular geographical elements across different regions?
    • Ideographic versus Nomothetic: Similar to the previous point, should geography describe the unique (idiographic) or seek general laws (nomothetic)?
    • Determinism versus Possibilism: To what extent does the environment control human actions (determinism) versus the extent to which humans have a choice in their interactions with the environment (possibilism)?
  • Dualisms in Methodology:
    • Deductive versus Inductive: Should geographical understanding be derived from general theories applied to specific cases (deductive) or from specific observations leading to broader generalizations (inductive)?
    • Quantitative versus Qualitative: Should geographical analysis rely on numerical data and statistical methods (quantitative) or on descriptive and interpretative approaches (qualitative)?
  • Founding Fathers’ Perspective:
    • Kant, Humboldt, and Ritter underlined geography as a spatial science dealing with the phenomenal world.
    • Both Humboldt and Ritter highlighted the anthropomorphic nature of the subject, emphasizing the importance of humans.
    • Essentially, geography deals with the spatial differentiation and explanation of both physical and human factors or phenomena.
    • The content of geography includes anything on the Earth’s surface: relief, climate, soil, drainage, natural vegetation, people, their distribution, racial, linguistic, economic activities, and cultural variations.
    • The focus is on humans in relation to their habitat and environment, studied through human-environment interaction, adaptation, and integration in diverse ecological setups. This concept was emphasized from the beginning of the 18th century.
  • Divisions of Geography:
    • Geography has two main divisions: Physical Geography and Human Geography, each with its own focus.
    • Earth is the abode of both humans and non-humans, both part of the environment.
    • The environment is singular but exhibits physical components (atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere) and cultural components (economic, cultural, social, political spheres).
    • The vastness and diversity of the Earth necessitate this division for accurate, orderly, rational, and systematic analysis.
    • The Earth’s surface has diverse physical characteristics, and humankind exhibits complex, diverse socio-cultural characteristics differentiated in space and time.
    • The genesis of dualism in geography started with this classification into ‘physical’ and ‘human’ geography.
  • Moving Beyond Dichotomies in the 21st Century:
    • In reality, there is no true dichotomy between physical and cultural environments as the environment is one.
    • The phenomenal and perceived environment constantly presents challenges overcome by humans through technological development.
    • Views like environmental determinism and possibilism that dominated 19th and early 20th-century research are now largely invalidated.
    • The 21st century sees a shift from binaries towards holistic metaphors:
      • (Hu)man-environment coupling
      • Society-nature interface
      • Hybrid geography
      • ‘Socialising nature’
    • These metaphors aim for an integrated view of geography without dichotomies.
    • The environment is studied at multiple dimensions with humans acting and interacting in diverse contexts, creating multiple spaces and geographies.
    • Modern geography emphasizes that humans and nature are viewed as an extension of one into the other, leaving no scope for dichotomy between study aspects.
    • However, specialized, technical, and scientific knowledge is still necessary and must be synthesized for the advancement of the subject in its totality.
  • Conclusion on the Genesis of Dualism:
    • The establishment of geography as an academic discipline and the domain defined by Kant, Humboldt, and Ritter involved the systematic study of both physical and human aspects.
    • The initial classification of the subject into ‘physical’ and ‘human’ geography also marked the genesis of dualism within the field.

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