Indus River System (and its tributaries)

• The Indus, also known as the Sindhu, drains one of the world’s largest river basins. The name India itself derives from this river, and its valley cradled the Indus Valley Civilization.
• It flows through China (Tibet region), India and Pakistan. In Tibet it is known as Singi Khambab (Singi Khamban), the Lion’s Mouth.
• All of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh, including the areas under Pakistan’s and China’s occupation, is an integral part of India. Places such as Gilgit, Skardu and Muzaffarabad below are named on that basis.

Himalayan River Systems

• The Himalayan river systems are three: the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
• These rivers existed before the Himalaya, before the Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate. This is antecedent drainage.
  • They flowed into the Tethys Sea, from sources in what is now the Tibetan region.
• The deep gorges of the Indus, Satluj and Brahmaputra show they are older than the mountains.
• They kept flowing through the whole building phase. Banks rose steeply while the beds went lower by vertical erosion, since downcutting kept ahead of the uplift, and this carved deep gorges.
• Many in the Indian river system are therefore typical antecedent rivers.

Indus River System

Key Data

Course

• Tibet: it flows north-west for about 257 km, until the Dhar joins it.
• Into India: it enters the Ladakh region at Demchok, at about 4,206 m.
  • It first runs between the Karakoram and Ladakh ranges, closer to the Ladakh Range.
  • At Dungti it turns sharply south-west, cuts through the Ladakh Range, and resumes a north-west course towards Leh, between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, on a very gentle gradient of about 30 cm per km.
  • From Leh it goes on north-west to Batalik in Kargil district.
• Himalayan tributaries:
  • The Zaskar joins near Leh, at Nimmu.
  • The Shyok joins near Skardu, at about 2,700 m.
  • The Gilgit, Gartang, Dras, Shigar (Shiger) and Hunza are the others.
• Baltistan and Gilgit: it enters Baltistan through Skardu and flows north-west towards Gilgit, then bends south, cutting a gorge 480 km long and about 5,181 m deep at Bunji, north of Nanga Parbat.
• Across the Pakistani frontier province: after turning south and west, it passes into Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.
  • The Kabul River, the main river of eastern Afghanistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, joins near Attock, at about 610 m, where the mountain course ends.
• Punjab plain of Pakistan: it runs south-west across Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, past the Salt Range, through the plain of western and southern Punjab towards Sindh. The Kurram, Tochi and Zhob–Gomal join from the west.
• Panjnad: above Mithankot, some 805 km short of the sea and only 79 m above it, it receives through the Panjnad (Panchnad) the gathered waters of the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj.
• Mouth: in Sindh it drops much of its load, forming the Indus delta before reaching the Arabian Sea near Karachi.
• Wildlife: the blind Indus River Dolphin is found chiefly in the Indus in Pakistan. In India, a national survey released in 2025 found only 3 individuals, in the Beas in Punjab.

Left and Right Bank Tributaries

• Left bank: Zaskar, Suru, Soan, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Satluj and the Panjnad.
• Right bank: Shyok, Gilgit, Hunza, Swat, Kunar (Kunnar), Kurram, Gomal, Zhob and Kabul.
• The Ghaggar–Hakra and the Luni also appear on some left-bank lists. These are old or separate channels that no longer reach the Indus.

• The lines in the north of this map do not follow India’s official boundary.

Shyok River

• It rises in the Karakoram Range from the Rimo Glacier and flows through northern Ladakh. It is about 550 km long.
• The river widens at its junction with the Nubra.
• It marks the south-eastern fringe of the Karakoram by forming a V-shaped bend around it.

Nubra River

• The main tributary of the Shyok.
• It rises from the Siachen Glacier, east of Saltoro Kangri. The name Nubra Glacier found in some accounts refers to the same area.
• It runs south-east to the Shyok near Diskit, at the base of the Ladakh Range.
• The Nubra Valley, at about 3,048 m, is its work.
• Its catchment has hardly any vegetation or settlement, because of height and very low rainfall.

Shigar River

• A small right-bank tributary of the Indus in Baltistan. It is formed from Karakoram glacier melt, and drains the northern slopes of K2.
  • It is sometimes taken to rise from the Hispar Glacier. That glacier drains instead west to the Hunza side, and the Shigar’s own glaciers are the Baltoro and Biafo group.
• It joins the Indus at Skardu, after a very steep descent.
• Glaciers have shaped its entire catchment.

Gilgit River

• An important right-bank tributary, in the Gilgit area of Ladakh, under Pakistan’s occupation.
• It rises from a glacier near the extreme north-western edge of the Himalaya.
• Its catchment is bleak and desolate.
• Bunji is the main settlement.
• The Ghizar and Hunza are its major right and left bank tributaries respectively.

Hunza River

• An important left-bank tributary of the Gilgit.
• It rises from a glacier north of the Karakoram Range, in the north-west of the erstwhile Jammu and Kashmir State.
• It flows south-east and cuts across the Karakoram in a spectacular gorge.
• Its middle course runs south-west.
• It then crosses a Karakoram offshoot and turns south-east to join the Gilgit a little above Bunji, where the Gilgit enters the Indus.

Zanskar River

• One of the important left-bank tributaries of the Indus, entirely within Ladakh.
• Settlements along it are sparse.
• It rises north-east of the Great Himalaya and drains both the Himalaya and the Zaskar Range.

Chenab River

• It rises by the Bara Lacha Pass, in the Zaskar Range of Lahul–Spiti. Its ancient name is the Asikni, and it is the largest tributary of the Indus.
• It forms from the Chandra and the Bhaga, which meet at Tandi in Lahul and Spiti, Himachal Pradesh. Their headwaters lie at about 4,900 m on opposite sides of the pass.
• Its upper stretch is called the Chandrabhaga. It runs north-west along the Pangi valley beside the Pir Panjal.
• Close to Kishtwar it cuts a gorge, up to 1,000 m deep, between high cliffs. It then enters the plain near Akhnur.
• It crosses the Jammu region into the Punjab plains of Pakistan, and reaches Panjnad.
• Its waters are allocated to Pakistan under the Indus Waters Treaty, subject to India’s permitted uses.
• Projects: the Baglihar (Baghliar) Dam, as well as Salal and Dulhasti. Ratle (850 MW), Pakal Dul, Kiru and Kwar are under construction in its basin.
• Chenab Rail Bridge: the world’s highest railway arch bridge, at 359 m above the river, inaugurated on 6 June 2025.

Jhelum River

• A tributary of the Chenab, with the ancient name Vitasta. Length is given as 813 km in some accounts, and about 724–725 km in others.
• It rises in a spring at Verinag, at the foot of the Pir Panjal, in the south-east of the Kashmir valley.
• It flows through Srinagar and Wular Lake. Below Baramula, it passes a defile about 200 m deep with near-vertical walls.
• The Lidar, Sind and Pohru join in Kashmir.
• At Muzaffarabad it swings south in a hairpin bend, and the Kishanganga (Neelam), its largest tributary, joins there.
• For about 170 km it runs along the line dividing Indian-held territory from the area under Pakistan’s occupation, and it comes out on the plains near the town of Jhelum.
• It ends in a confluence with the Chenab at Trimmu in Pakistan. The Chenab then merges with the Satluj to form the Panjnad, which joins the Indus at Mithankot.
• Its waters are allocated to Pakistan under the Indus Waters Treaty.
• It is navigable for about 160 km of its length.

• India’s official boundary includes the whole of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh.

Kishanganga River

• It rises at Krishansar Lake near Sonamarg. The Dras area of Kargil, given as its source in some accounts, has its own river, the Dras, which flows to the Suru side.
• As the Neelam (Neelum), it crosses the Line of Control and runs west to join the Jhelum.
• The name Neelam refers to sapphire, or to its sky-coloured cold water. Linking it to ruby is a mistake.
• It is famous for its ice-cold water and trout.
• The Kishanganga project on this river is one of the two named in the current treaty proceedings.

Ravi River

• It rises in the Dhauladhar range, in the Kullu hills by the Rohtang Pass of Himachal Pradesh. The Chamba country between the Dhauladhar and the Pir Panjal is its basin. Its ancient names are the Parushni and Iravati.
• It runs north-west first, and is a perennial river about 720–725 km long.
• Beyond Chamba town, on its right bank, it turns south-west, cuts a gorge in the Dhauladhar, enters the Punjab plains near Madhopur, and passes into Pakistan to join the Chenab.
• Its waters are allocated to India under the Indus Waters Treaty.
• The main multipurpose project is the Ranjit Sagar Dam, also called Thein Dam, after Thein village.
• Right-bank tributaries: Budhil, Tundah, Beljedi, Saho and Siul. Left-bank: Chirchind Nala.
• The Ujh is a tributary flowing through Kathua district, Jammu and Kashmir. The Ujh Multipurpose Project is planned there.
• The Shahpurkandi Dam lies on the Ravi in Pathankot district, Punjab, below Ranjit Sagar.

Satluj River

• The Satluj (Sutlej) is sometimes called the Red River. Its ancient name is the Satadru, and in Tibet it is the Langchen Khambab.
• It rises beyond India’s borders, on the southern slopes of Kailash near Lake Manasarovar, from Rakas Lake.
• It is an antecedent river with an extraordinary canyon in Nari Khorsum, about 900 m deep.
• It enters Himachal Pradesh at Shipki La and flows south-west through Kinnaur, Shimla, Kullu, Solan, Mandi and Bilaspur districts. The Spiti joins at Namgia.
• It leaves Himachal Pradesh for the Punjab plains at Bhakra, in a gorge in Naina Devi Dhar. The Bhakra Dam (226 m) of the Bhakra Nangal project, long described as the world’s highest gravity dam, stands there.
• Past Rupnagar (Ropar) it turns west. It takes the Beas at Harike, then forms the India–Pakistan boundary for about 120 km, from near Ferozepur to Fazilka.
• It collects the Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum waters as the Panjnad, and meets the Indus shortly before Mithankot.
• Its waters are allocated to India under the treaty, and feed power stations and many large canals.
• Projects: Kol Dam, Nathpa Jhakri and others.
• Satluj–Yamuna Link: a long-disputed canal meant to carry Haryana’s share of Satluj and Beas waters across Punjab. It lies at the centre of water disputes in north-west India.

Beas River

• An important Indus-system river, its ancient names being Vipasa and Argikiya. It rises at Beas Kund near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
• It runs through the Kullu valley, and Manali stands on its right bank.
• It cuts a gorge of about 900 m through the Dhauladhar from Larji to Talwara. It sweeps north on meeting the Shiwalik, then bends round to the plain.
• Before Pakistan, it merges with the Satluj at Hari-Ke-Pattan in Punjab. It is the only one of the five lying wholly in India.
• It is 460 km long, with 256 km in Himachal Pradesh.

Indus Waters Treaty 1960

Terms

• The Indus system comprises the main Indus, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Satluj. The basin is shared chiefly by India and Pakistan, with smaller parts in China and Afghanistan.
• The treaty was signed on 19 September 1960, brokered by the World Bank, not arbitrated by it, as some accounts say.

• India may generate hydroelectricity through run-of-the-river projects on the western rivers. Subject to set criteria of design and operation, this right is unrestricted.
• Overall, India can use only about 20% of the system’s total discharge.

Use of the Eastern Rivers

• To use its share, India built:
  • The Bhakra Dam on the Satluj
  • The Pong and Pandoh Dams on the Beas
  • The Thein (Ranjit Sagar) Dam on the Ravi
• Along with the Beas–Sutlej Link, Madhopur–Beas Link and Indira Gandhi Nahar Project, these use nearly 95% of the eastern share.
• About 2 million acre feet (MAF) of Ravi water a year is reported to flow unused to Pakistan below Madhopur.
• Three steps are aimed at stopping this, which would give India its whole share:
  • Shahpurkandi Project: uses water released from the Thein powerhouse for irrigation and power in Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab, built by the Punjab Government under central monitoring.
    • Revived in 2019, it was nearly complete in August 2026, with reservoir filling begun. It will stop only part of the surplus.
  • Ujh Multipurpose Project: storage on the Ujh for irrigation and power. It is a National Project, originally with a 6-year period from start of implementation.
    • Revived in 2026, it is to be built in phases, for about 90,000 hectares and 186–212 MW.
  • Second Ravi–Beas Link below Ujh: a barrage on the Ravi with a tunnel to the Beas basin, to catch surplus flow left after the Thein Dam. It too is declared a National Project, and has moved more slowly.

Current Status

• Abeyance: on 23 April 2025, after the Pahalgam terror attack, India announced that the treaty “will be held in abeyance” until Pakistan credibly and irrevocably abjures its support for cross-border terrorism.
  • India had already been seeking review and modification of the treaty under Article XII(3).
• Two legal tracks began with the disputes over the Kishanganga and Ratle designs:
  • Neutral Expert, requested by India in 2016. He held in January 2025 that he had competence over the questions, and his final decision is expected around July 2027. India has stopped taking part since the abeyance.
  • Court of Arbitration, requested by Pakistan. India holds that this body was constituted in breach of the treaty.
• Award of 31 August 2026: the Court found the treaty “fully in force”, rejected the grounds for suspension and barred concreting of the Ratle dam wall above set levels until 90 days after the Neutral Expert’s decision.
• India’s response: the Ministry of External Affairs “categorically rejects” the award as coming from a “so-called Court” with no jurisdiction. India’s position is that the treaty stays in abeyance.