Sociology Optional · Paper I · Fundamentals of Sociology
Sociological Thinkers Notes · PYQs · Solved Answers
Free notes, every previous year question and the solved answers for Sociological Thinkers (Paper I, Fundamentals of Sociology), arranged so you can read a topic and immediately see how UPSC has asked it. Syllabus: Marx, Durkheim, Weber, Parsons, Merton, Mead.
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1981–2026
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Paper I · Unit 04
Sociological Thinkers notes
Topic-wise notes for this unit in syllabus order. Read a topic, then open its previous year questions below.
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Previous year questions: Sociological Thinkers
Every question UPSC has asked from this unit, year-wise, with a link to its solved answer.
Topic-wise question list
Year-wise question papers
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UPSC Sociology Optional Question Paper 2026
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UPSC Sociology Optional Question Paper 2025
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UPSC Sociology Optional Question Paper 2024
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UPSC Sociology Optional Question Paper 2023
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Sociology Optional Question Paper 2010
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Sociology Optional Question Paper 2011
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Sociology Optional Question Paper 2012
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Sociology Optional Question Paper 2013
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Sociology Optional Question Paper 2014
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Sociology Optional Question Paper 2015
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Sociology Optional Question Paper 2016
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Sociology Optional Question Paper 2017
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Sociology Optional Question Paper 2018
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Sociology Optional Question Paper 2019
Sociology PYQ Master Pack
Solved PYQ answers: Sociological Thinkers
Topic-wise model answers, newest exam year first. Members open the full answer; everyone else sees the question and can join the pack.
PYQ Solutions
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How does Emile Durkheim conceptualize religion as a ‘social fact’? Explain.
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How does Max Weber’s ‘theory of authority’ shape bureaucracy? Analyse.
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Critically analyse the mode of production debate from different perspectives.
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Explain the concept of ‘definition of the situation’ and its significance in sociology.
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Describe the impact of capitalist mode of production on society.
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According to Weber how do class, status and power interact to produce and sustain social inequality?
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How do theories of Marx, Weber and Durkheim differ in understanding religion? Explain.
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Can Merton’s reference group theory be relevant in understanding ‘identity making’ in digital world? Explain.
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Highlight the main features of historical materialism as propounded by Marx. How far is this theory relevant in understanding contemporary societies? Explain.
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Does the structural-functionalist perspective on social stratification promote a status quo? Give reasons for your answer.
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How does Weber’s Verstehen address the objectivity-subjectivity debate in sociology?
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Describe various characteristics of a ‘social fact’. How is rate of suicide a social fact according to Durkheim?
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Describe the main idea of Max Weber’s book, ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’ as a critique of Marxism.
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Explain G.H. Mead’s idea of development of ‘self’ through the ‘generalised other’.
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Critically explain the salient features of ‘alienation’ as propounded by Karl Marx.
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Is reference group theory a universally applicable model? Elucidate.
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Durkheim argued that society is more than the sum of individual acts. Discuss.
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Critically analyse Parsons’ views on society as a social system.
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According to Mead the idea of self develops when the individual becomes self-conscious. Explain.
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Critically examine the relevance of Durkheim’s views on religion in contemporary society.
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Critically examine how Durkheim and Merton explicate Anomie.
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With suitable examples, explain how conformity and deviance coexist in a society as propounded by R. K. Merton.
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Explain whether Durkheim’s theory of Division of Labour is relevant in the present-day context.
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Critically examine the dialectics involved in each mode of production as propounded by Karl Marx.
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Do you agree with Max Weber’s idea that bureaucracy has the potential to become an iron cage? Justify your answer.
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What are the problems in observing social facts in Durkheim’s views?
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Analyse the relevance of ‘Pattern Variables’ in the study of social change.
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What are the reactions of R. K. Merton to the functionalism of social anthropologists? Bring out the limitations of latent functions.
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‘Ideal Types’ of Max Weber are mental constructs; they do not correspond to the reality. Give your views.
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Critically analyse Durkheim’s views on elementary forms of religious life and role of religion. Also discuss the consequences of religious revivalism in contemporary society.
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What, according to Merton, is the difference between ‘unanticipated consequences’ and ‘latent functions’? Give examples to elaborate.
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How well do you think Tönnies, Durkheim, Weber and Marx predicted the character of modern society? Critique.
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How, according to Merton, are deviant subcultures generated?
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According to Mead, “We play a key role in our own socialisation.” Explain.
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Discuss the importance of interpretative understanding of social phenomena and explain its limitations.
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What is the Marxist concept of ‘Fetishism of Commodities’?
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In what way did Durkheim perceive religion as functional to society?
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Do you think ‘I’ and ‘Me’ are central terms in Mead’s work?
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Distinguish between fact and value in Weber’s Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism.
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Explain Durkheim’s basic arguments on suicide. Can you analyse high suicide rates of contemporary Indian society with Durkheim’s theory?
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What is the difference between the anomie in Merton and Durkheim? Explain.
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According to Marx, how are human beings alienated from their human potential and what does he suggest to change this?
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How can Parsons’ AGIL framework be used to analyse key problems in a society? Discuss.
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Critically analyse Talcott Parsons’ conception of ‘Pattern Variables’.
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Analyse Marxian conception of historical materialism as a critique of Hegelian dialectics.
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Discuss distinct sociological method adopted by Emile Durkheim in his study of ‘suicide’.
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Examine Max Weber’s method of maintaining objectivity in social research.
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Describe the functional prerequisites of social system as given by Talcott Parsons. Examine in the context of a university as a social system.
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Evaluate Marx’s ideas on mode of production.
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Analyse the manifest and latent functions of ‘security of the tenure of the bureaucrats’ in the light of Merton’s theory.
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Which concepts did Weber use to analyse the forms of legitimate domination?
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“Self and Society are twin-born.” Examine the statement of Mead.
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How is social equilibrium maintained in Parsonian framework?
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Elaborate the views of Durkheim on ‘The Elementary Forms of Religious Life’.
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Discuss the role of Calvinist ethic in the development of Capitalism.
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“Anomie is rooted in social structure.” Explain with reference to R. K. Merton’s contribution.
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“According to Durkheim, the essence of religion in modern society is the same as religion in primitive society.” Comment.
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How can we use reference group theory to understand fashion in society?
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How could one use Merton’s concept of deviance to understand the traffic problem in urban India?
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Using Mead’s theory of symbolic interactionism, discuss the stages in the formation of gender identity.
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Using Merton’s concepts of ‘manifest’ and ‘latent’ functions, explain the persistence of corruption in Indian society.
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How does Weber use the notion of ‘ideal types’ in his theory of bureaucracy?
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According to Marx, capitalism transforms even the personal relationships between men and women. Critically examine with illustrations from the contemporary Indian context.
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Identify the similarities and differences between Marx’s theory of ‘alienation’ and Durkheim’s theory of ‘anomie’.
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Examine the salient features of Weberian bureaucracy.
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Examine the relevance of Parsonian Social System in the present society.
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Critically analyse the contributions of G. H. Mead to ‘symbolic interactionism’.
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Compare Karl Marx with Emile Durkheim with reference to the framework of ‘division of labour’.
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Analyse the salient features of historical materialism.
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Sometimes workers do not feel attachment for their work. Marx formed a theory for this situation, discuss that theory.
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Explain how Weber’s characterisation of capitalism is different from those of Marx.
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Write short note on the following, keeping sociological perspective in view: Universalism vs. Particularism.
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Show how Durkheim through the study of totemism demonstrates the reality of religion.
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‘Social fact is to be treated as a thing.’ Discuss.
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Write short note: Sacred and Profane.
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‘Power and authority go together.’ Examine. Explain the various types of authority also.
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In Marxian classification of Society, feudal and slave societies are very important. How are they different from each other?
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Give conceptual meaning of social system. What is cognitive consonance between ‘pattern variables’ and ‘paradigm’?
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Write short note on The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, keeping sociological perspective in view.
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Define Ideal Type and explain Weber’s concept of ‘Verstehen’ for understanding social phenomena.
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Write short note on Cybernetic Hierarchy of Control.
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Examine Karl Marx’s views on ‘class-in-itself’ and ‘class-for-itself’ with reference to proletarians.
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What, according to Max Weber, is the role of “particular religious ideas” in the emergence of modern capitalism?
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Write short note on Talcott Parsons’ idea of ‘moving equilibrium’.
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To Robert Merton, deviant behaviour is a result of anomie. Analyse his sociological theory of deviant behaviour, with special reference to his formulation of types of deviance.
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Comment on the responses of the functionalist school to Karl Marx’s views on social change.
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Write short note: Subject-matter of Sociology, according to Emile Durkheim.
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Write short note: Relevance of pattern variables in the study of social change.
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What is Merton’s view of relationship between social structure and deviance? In what sense is a deviant also a conformist?
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Write short note: Mead’s notion of self.
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Using Max Weber’s theory, discuss what ethical and religious ideas produced capitalism in certain societies and how?
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What is the subject-matter of Sociology according to Max Weber? Which major methods did he suggest for social science research? Illustrate your answer with his sociological contributions.
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Write short note: Social facts.
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Write short note: Talcott Parsons’ concept of social system.
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Write short note: Robert Merton’s views on manifest and latent functions.
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Elaborate Emile Durkheim’s analysis of the Elementary Forms of Religious Life and role of religion in society. How does he explain existence of religion in modern industrial societies?
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Explain Karl Marx’s analysis of capitalistic mode of production and class-struggle. What are the intellectual reactions to his views?
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Explain Karl Marx’s ‘theory of social change’. What are the reactions of functionalists to his views?
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What according to Emile Durkheim is the nature of relationship between the individual and society? Explain this with the help of his analysis of division of labour in society.
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Write short note: Concept of ideal type and its limitations.
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Discuss Max Weber’s ideal types and the role of authority in bureaucracy.
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Write short note: Class struggle as conceived by Karl Marx.
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Write short note: Social determinants of economic development.
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Give a critical review of Emile Durkheim’s theory on religion and society. To what extent does it explain the contemporary scenario in Asia?
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Analyse socio-cultural consequences of corruption and suggest remedial measures for curbing it.
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Write short note: Social system and the Pattern Variables.
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Critically examine Max Weber’s theory of the Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. Could it be the otherwise possibility that the tenets of capitalism must also have affected the emergence of the Protestant ethic? Comment with suitable examples.
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Write short note: Primary and reference groups.
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Write short note: Class-in-itself and class-for-itself.
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Critically analyse the concept of anomie. Elaborate, with suitable examples, the theoretical relationship between nature of anomie and types of social deviations as have been formulated by R. K. Merton.
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Critically examine Weber’s theory of Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism.
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Examine the nature of social facts as understood by Durkheim.
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State the meaning and characteristics of an ideal type. What, according to Max Weber, is the use and significance of the ‘ideal type’ in social science research?
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What is the focus of sociological analysis in the contributions of Emile Durkheim? Give your answer with the help of any one of his contributions.
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Explain Karl Marx’s conception of class antagonism. How have the functionalists reacted to his views?
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How does social structure produce a strain toward anomie and deviant behaviour? Examine it with reference to Robert K. Merton’s contribution to this field of study.
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Write short note: Relative deprivation.
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Emile Durkheim had argued that the function of division of labour in society is that of the promotion of social solidarity. Elaborate the statement and analyze the distinction between two forms of solidarity discussed by him.
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Write short note: Alienation.
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Write short note: Social structure and anomie.
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“Not all facts about human behavior are necessarily social facts.” State the meaning of ‘social facts’ and the methods of studying them with reference to this statement.
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Write short note: Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft types of communities.
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Write short note: Functional problems of the social system.
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Write short note: Division of labour and the differentiation of social structure.
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“It is not the consciousness of men that determines their being, but on the contrary it is their social being that determines their consciousness.” Examine Karl Marx’s notion of mode of production in the light of this statement.
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Write short note: Pattern variables.
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Critically examine Max Weber’s theory of social action and its limitations.
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Explain the concept of social change. Critically examine the contribution of Karl Marx’s theory of social change.
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Discuss Talcott Parsons’ contribution to the analysis of social system.
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Write short note: Anomie.
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Discuss Talcott Parsons’ contribution to the analysis of social change.
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Write short note: Mode of production.
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Write short note: The idea of functional indispensability.
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Explain the origin and characteristics of bureaucracy according to Max Weber. Illustrate the structural sources of dysfunctions of bureaucracy.
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“Subjective perception of the objective reality prepares the context for the articulation of class antagonism.” Evaluate this statement with reference to Karl Marx’s contribution.
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Write short note: Middle-range theories.
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Bring out the strength and the weakness of Robert Merton’s advancement over the classical functionalism.
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Critically examine the role of formal and informal structures of bureaucracy in economic and social reconstruction of the developing societies.
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Critically examine Karl Marx’s theory of alienation.
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Write short note: Pathological form of division of labour.
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State Talcott Parsons’ contribution to theory of social action. What are the limitations of this theory?
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Write short note: Organic analogy.
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In modern structural-functionalism, Merton’s effort to develop a “Paradigm” for functional analysis is the most significant one. Evaluate this statement.
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What did Max Weber mean by interpretative understanding? Why did he believe that to model sociological researches exclusively on strategies and ambitions of natural sciences was a serious mistake?
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Write short note: Ideal types.
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Write short note: Authority.
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Write short note: Methods of Sociology according to Max Weber.
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Explain Karl Marx’s theory of social stratification. On what grounds functionalists refute it?
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Describe the functional analysis of religion given by Durkheim. Is this analysis applicable to the modern industrialized societies?
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Write short note: Concept of functional alternatives.
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Critically examine AGIL model of Talcott Parsons. How far is this model capable of explaining social changes in society?
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Write short note: Parsons’ idea of equilibrium.
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Critically bring out the differences in the approaches of Karl Marx and Max Weber to the study of class structure in industrial capitalist society.
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What are the basic questions which inspired Durkheim to study the division of labour in society? Critically comment on his conclusions.
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Write short note: Concept of social structure.
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Write short note: Protestant Ethic.
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How does Parsons defend the nuclear family in promoting industrialisation? Is his thesis universally valid?
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What is the importance of Merton’s ‘Middle Range Theory’ in sociology? Discuss critically.
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‘Why does the individual, while becoming more autonomous, depend more upon society?’ (Durkheim). How has the author tried to answer this question?
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‘The history of the hitherto existing societies is the history of class struggle.’ Critically comment on this Marxian thesis.
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Talcott Parsons’ theory of social system has been criticised as a veiled status quoist ideology. Critically examine how valid and justified is this criticism.
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What does R. K. Merton mean when he admits that not everything works out for the best of everyone in society? What is his improvement on functional theory?
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How does Marx’s treatment of alienation differ from that of other sociologists?
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Write short note: Conformity and deviance.
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What does Weber mean by ideal types? How is the concept relevant in sociology?
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Is the Durkheimian concept of religion entirely different from that of his predecessors? Why and how?
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In what respects do you think Weber’s conception of sociology differs from that of Durkheim? Which one of the two is more satisfactory? Substantiate your answer.
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Attempt a comparative analysis of the Weberian and Marxian theories of social change. Which do you think is more relevant to the Indian society at present? Give reasons for your answer.
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Discuss the relation between social structure and anomie as presented by R. K. Merton. Attempt a critical appraisal of this analysis.
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Do you agree with Max Weber that the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism are correlated? What are the alternative theories suggested by other academics?
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Do you think that in T. Parsons there has been a ‘transition from the analysis of the structure of social action as such to the structural-functional analysis of social systems’? Discuss in detail.
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Do you accept that Marxism offers a prefabricated theory of social change? Discuss critically.
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Write short note: Collective representations.
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What is ‘social action’? What is its place in the analytical frameworks of Max Weber and Talcott Parsons?
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Critically assess R. K. Merton’s views on the contributions of research to the development of sociological theory.
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Write short note: Historical materialism.
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Discuss Durkheim’s concept of Division of Labour. In what way does it differ from that of classical and neoclassical economists?
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How is Marxism relevant to developing nations? Will it be able to establish classless societies?
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Discuss the contributions of Durkheim to sociology. How far did his methodology influence sociological traditions?
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Discuss Marx’s concept of class. Is class struggle inevitable for the elimination of inequalities and exploitation in the third world societies?
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Write short note: Ideal types and social analysis.
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Write short note: Alienation in developing societies.
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Analyse Marxian theory of social change. Is it useful to comprehend the changes in the developing societies?
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Write short note: Alienation in modern society.
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