UPSC History Optional Map Solution 2024

UPSC History Optional Map Solution 2024

History Optional Mapping PYQs Solution: Map Based Questions with Solution – 2024 History Optional Mains Examination.

Q. Identify the following places marked on the map supplied to you and write a short note of about 30 words on each of them in your Question-cum-Answer Booklet. Locational hints for each of the places marked on the map are given below seriatim:

• (i) Prehistoric site
• (ii) Area of petroglyphs
• (iii) Neolithic site
• (iv) Harappan site
• (v) Buddhist monastery
• (vi) Chalcolithic site
• (vii) Neo-Chalcolithic site
• (viii) Megalithic site with rock art
• (ix) One of the Mahajanapadas’ capital and associated with Buddha’s miracle
• (x) Hominid fossil find site
• (xi) Major rock edict of Ashoka
• (xii) Ancient trade centre
• (xiii) Stone inscription recording land grants with tax exemptions
• (xiv) Shiva temples named after family relationships
• (xv) Place of art-related inscription
• (xvi) Place of inscription of three languages
• (xvii) Temple site where three styles of temple architecture are found
• (xviii) Jain pilgrimage site
• (xix) Shiva temple of Gupta period
• (xx) Megalithic monumental site

Mapping PYQs Solution:

1. Prehistoric site: Asurgarh / Kalahandi (Gudahandi cave)
2. Area of Petroglyphs: Konkan Coast (Niveli/ Patharde/ Runde)
3. Neolithic site: Barudih (Singhbhum district, Jharkhand)
4. Harappan site: Rakhigarhi
5. Buddhist monastery: Moghalmari Monastery
6. Chalcolithic site: Navdatoli / Kayatha
7. Neo-Chalcolithic: Jodhpura
8. Megalithic site with rock art: Mallapadi / Chandrapuram (Tirupattur) /Kumittipathi (Coimbatore)
9. One of the Mahajanapadas’ capital and associated with Buddha’s miracles: Shravasti
10. Hominid fossil find site: Hathnora
11. Major rock edict of Ashoka: Kalsi
12. Ancient trade centre: Dantapuram (Srikakulam)
13. Stone inscription recording land grants with tax exemptions: Nashik
14. Shiva temples named after family relationships: Mama Bhanja temple, Sirpur Temple Complex
15. Place of art related inscription: Sittanavasal
16. Place of inscription of three languages: Maski
17. Temple site where three styles of temple architecture are found: Pattadakal
18. Jain pilgrimage site: Vallabhi / Palitana
19. Shiva temple of Gupta period: Dah Parbatiya
20. Megalithic monumental site: Vangchhia in Champhai

(i) Prehistoric site

Kalahandi (Gudahandi cave)

• Located in Kalahandi district, Odisha, in the Tel river valley.
• Site of Gudahandi cave, known for prehistoric rock art.
• Excavations show microlithic tools, hand-made pottery, and evidence of a Mesolithic habitation.
• Cultural sequence shows transition from hunting-gathering to early agriculture.
• Important for studying subsistence pattern and tool technology in prehistoric Odisha.

Asurgarh

• Asurgarh is situated near Narla in the Kalahandi district of Odisha. It’s located on the right bank of the Sandul river.
• The name “Asurgarh” literally translates to “the fort of demons”. It is believed to have been associated with powerful tribal rulers or chiefs.
• Asurgarh is considered one of the earliest urban fortified settlements in the region, with its origins dating back to the 5th century BCE and continuing to be inhabited until around the 5th century AD.
• Carbon dating has even suggested that the settlement could date as far back as the 9th century BC, making it potentially older than Sisupalgarh, another ancient fortified settlement in Odisha.
• Excavations at Asurgarh have revealed evidence of a developed settlement plan, including stone pavements, brick structures, and a complex water management system.
• Artifacts such as coins (pre-Mauryan, Mauryan, and Gupta periods), pottery, beads, and terracotta roof tiles have been found, providing insights into the civilization that thrived there.

(ii) Area of petroglyphs

Konkan Coast (Niveli/ Patharde/ Runde)

• Location: 
  • Region: Konkan region of Maharashtra, India.
  • Specific Areas: Niveli, Patharde, and Rundhe are important sites within the Konkan petroglyph cluster. 
• Significance: 
  • Prehistoric Art: These petroglyphs represent some of the earliest forms of human artistic expression in the region, dating back potentially 10,000-12,000 years to the Mesolithic period.
  • Insights into Life: They offer valuable insights into the lives, beliefs, and artistic traditions of the prehistoric inhabitants, likely hunter-gatherer communities.
  • Unique Feature: The carvings are etched into laterite rock surfaces, which is a distinguishing feature compared to other petroglyph sites in India where carvings are often on granite or sandstone.
  • Cultural Importance: Some carvings depict animals and potentially fertility symbols, suggesting early forms of religious belief or cultural practices.
  • Unesco Tentative List: Eight Konkan petroglyph sites, including likely some from these areas, are on UNESCO’s tentative list for World Heritage status, highlighting their universal value and the need for their preservation. 
• Key Sites and Features: 
  • Niveli: Site of the initial discovery, with distinct panels featuring cross designs, quadrants, and S-shaped perimeters, along with other carvings like an abstract sea turtle.
  • Patharde: Features ancient rock carvings that offer a glimpse into the lives and beliefs of the region’s early inhabitants, with motifs potentially including animal figures, human forms, and geometric patterns.
  • Rundhe: Contains a large petroglyph with a central figure, zigzags, and semi-round mounts, estimated to be around 12,000 years old. 

(iii) Neolithic site

Barudih (Singhbhum district, Jharkhand)

• Located in the Chotanagpur plateau, near the Subarnarekha River basin.
• Dates to approximately 2500–1500 BCE.
• Among the easternmost Neolithic sites in India.
• 2 Phases:
  • Phase I:
    • Polished axes, chalcoal, handmade pottery.
  • Phase II:
    • Rice grain, wheel made pottery, iron objects, charcoal.
• Key Features
  • Polished stone tools: celts, axes made of quartzite and granite.
  • Shows continuity from Mesolithic tool traditions.
  • Tools suited for forest clearance and early agriculture.
• Subsistence Pattern
  • Evidence of grinding stones suggests shifting cultivation.
  • Mixed economy: hunting, gathering, and limited farming.
• Significance:
  • Represents tribal plateau-based Neolithic adaptation in Eastern India.
  • Highlights early sedentary life in forested zones of Jharkhand.

(iv) Harappan site

Rakhigarhi

• Location
  • Hisar District, Haryana
  • Situated on the banks of the now-dry Sarasvati–Drishadvati river system
• Cultural Chronology
  • Largest Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) site, spanning around 550 hectares
  • Occupied from 5000 BCE to 1900 BCE
  • Contains cultural layers from Early to Mature Harappan phases
  • 9th phase of excavation currently ongoing
• Urban Planning and Architecture
  • Well-planned township following grid layout
  • Mud-brick and burnt-brick houses
  • Proper drainage system and sanitation
  • Houses with courtyards, bathing areas, and wells
• Material Culture and Artifacts
  • Pottery: Red ware including dish-on-stand, vase, jar, bowl, beaker, perforated jars
  • Seals: Inscribed steatite seals, including a cylindrical seal with five Harappan characters
  • Ritual Objects: Animal sacrificial pits, circular fire altars suggesting ritualistic practices
  • Other artifacts:
    • Terracotta and shell bangles
    • Beads of semiprecious stones (carnelian, lapis lazuli)
    • Copper tools and objects
    • Blades, bone points
    • Terracotta toy carts, wheels, and animal figurines
• Craft and Industry
  • Specialized craft areas including a jewelry-making unit
  • Evidence of production of bronze, copper, and gold jewelry
  • Semi-finished beads and figurines, indicating local manufacture and trade
• Agriculture and Economy
  • Cultivation of wheat, barley, peas
  • Domestication of cattle and buffalo
  • Indications of surplus agricultural production
• Burial and Ritual Practices
  • Animal sacrifices and structured fire altars
  • Burials under residential floors and in open spaces
• Genetic and Anthropological Evidence
  • DNA recovered from Harappan skeletal remains
  • Suggests genetic continuity from 10,000 BCE, indicating no major external migration
  • Challenges the Aryan migration theory
• Significance
  • One of the most crucial sites for understanding Harappan urbanism, ritual life, and genetics
  • Offers insights into continuity of South Asian populations and early urbanization

(v) Buddhist monastery

Moghalmari Monastery

• The Moghalmari Monastery, located in the Paschim Medinipur district of West Bengal, is a significant Buddhist archaeological site.
• It is situated on the left bank of the Subarnarekha River.
• The site is situated within the vicinity of ancient Tamralipta (modern-day Tamluk), an important port and trading center.
• Moghalmari reveals the presence of a thriving Buddhist monastery complex from the 6th to 12th centuries. It was mentioned by Chinese travellers Fa Hien and Hiuen Tsang, who referred to the existence of Buddhist viharas in the Tamralipta region. 
• Excavations have confirmed the presence of two monasteries within the complex: Mugalayikaviharika and Yajñapindikamahavihara.
• The elaborate stucco decorations, including depictions of floral motifs, deities like Jambala and Saraswati, and Buddha figures, showcase artistic traditions and influences of the Gupta period.

(vi) Chalcolithic site (Navdatoli/ Kayatha)

Navdatoli

• In west Nimar district, MP, on banks of Narmada river.
• Chalcolithic and Late Harappan Site.
• Navdatoli is the largest settlement of Malwa culture.
• Habitation:
  • Circular or rectangular shape.
  • Circular wattle-and-daub houses, post holes
  • Floors plastered with lime.
  • Ancient village inhabited through four stages.
• Chulhas and storage jars found in houses.
• Pottery:
  • BRW, grey ware with painted
• People sustained on both plant and animal food.
• Domesticated cattle, goat, sheep,pig, consumed as meat.
• Crop remains– rice, wheat, barley, black gram, lentil, ber and amla.
• Ritual – A sacrificial pit found, terracotta female figurine and bull associated with fertility ritual.
• A painted human figure is interpreted as proto-Shiva.
• A huge storage jar with figure of shrine in between the female figure, lizard.

Kayatha

• In Ujjain district, MP, on the banks of river Chotti Kali Sindh.
• Located on the Malwa plateau, near the Chambal River (tributary of Yamuna).
• Five fold cultural sequence identified starting with Kayatha culture followed by Ahar culture and then Malwa culture.
• Chalcolithic and late Harappan site.
• Houses:
  • Rectangular / circular huts made of mud and reed with mud-plastered floors.
• Bones of domesticated cattle and horses found.
• Practiced agriculture with crops like barley, wheat, and lentils.
  • Indicates a semi-sedentary agrarian lifestyle.
• Artefacts:
  • Microliths made of locally available chalcedony.
  • Copper axes, chisel, copper bangles etc.
  • Ornaments made of agate, steatite and carnelian beads.
  • Axes came from Ganeshwar.
• Pottery – brown slipped and well baked Kayatha ware mostly painted in violet or deep red.
  • Well-burnished red and buff ware, decorated with geometric designs.

(vii) Neo-Chalcolithic site

Jodhpura

• Jodhpura is an important Neo-Chalcolithic site located in Rajasthan, India.
• Part of the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura Culture: It’s closely linked with Ganeshwar, forming a distinct Chalcolithic culture.
• Location: The Jodhpura mound is situated on the right bank of the Salai River, approximately 100 km from Jaipur.
• Pre-Harappan Significance: The Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture predates the mature Harappan civilization.
• O.C.P. (Ochre Coloured Pottery) Culture: The lowest layers of Jodhpura are associated with the O.C.P. culture.
• Excavations: The site was excavated by R.C. Agrawala.
• Evidence of Copper Interaction: It’s believed that the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture supplied copper objects to the Harappan civilization.
• Pottery: Red slipped wares with incised lines, handled pots, basins, vases, and bowls have been found at the site.
• Other Findings: Harappan type terracotta cakes, terracotta and stone beads, and mud brick structures have also been unearthed.

Ganeshwar & Jodhpura

• In the Baleshwar Valley, Sikar district, Rajasthan.
• Located close to the Khetri copper belt.
• Jodhpura: PGW and Chalcolithic.
• Cultural Identity:
  • Represents the Ganeshwar–Jodhpura Chalcolithic culture.
  • Considered a Pre-Harappan Chalcolithic site.
• Three cultural phases:
  • Period I:
    • Hunting-gathering
    • microliths
  • Period II:
    • Beginning of metallurgy (copper).
    • Circular huts
    • Microliths
    • animal bones.
  • Period III:
    • Many copper objects found:- evidence of copper working centre.
    • Lesser number of microliths and animal bones.
• Pottery:
  • Handmade, Wheel-made, red in colour, with incised designs.
  • Shapes: dish-on-stand.
  • Pottery types include:
    • Ochre-Coloured Ware (OCW)
    • Red ware (plain, hand-made).
  • No elaborate painted pottery, differentiating it from cultures like Malwa or Jorwe.
• Metallurgy and Tools:
  • One of the earliest copper-producing centres in India.
  • Over 1000 copper objects found, including:
    • Arrowheads, fish hooks, spearheads, chisels, and bangles.
  • Indicates specialized metallurgy, possibly supplying tools to Harappan settlements.
• On the basis of Harappan pottery and double spiral pins, contact between Ganeshwar and Harappan culture is postulated.

(viii) Megalithic site with rock art

Chandrapuram (Tirupattur)

• Location: Chandrapuram is a rock art site near Tirupattur, in the Tirupattur district of Tamil Nadu.
• Significance: It contains rock paintings within a cavern known as Kalyanagugai. These paintings depict various scenes, including:
  • Horse riders.
  • Horses, some appearing to be running.
  • Human figures.
  • Intriguing decorations like wavy lines (possibly representing a river) and figures near tower-like paintings.

Kumittipathi (Coimbatore)

• Location: Kumittipathi is a village near Coimbatore, located in the Kongu region.
• Significance: The Pathimalai cave in Kumittipathi contains important rock art, believed to be around 3,000 years old. The paintings are drawn with white pigments and depict:
  • An elephant.
  • A “ther”, interpreted by some as a chariot or a peacock.
  • Scenes illustrating the lives of early inhabitants.
• Distinguishing Feature: Unlike most other rock painting sites in Tamil Nadu that are found in rock shelters, Kumittipathi’s rock art is located inside a cave.

Mallapadi

• Location: Mallapadi is a village located near Krishnagiri, historically part of the composite Dharmapuri district.
• Significance: It’s considered to be one of the early sites where prehistoric rock art was discovered in Tamil Nadu.
  • Rock paintings were first found here in 1978, in white pigment and attributed to the megalithic age.
  • Mallapadi has a high concentration of rock paintings in the state.
  • One painting found here depicts an elephant.
  • Some sources suggest the paintings are around 2500 years old and might be related to horse domestication in South India during the Megalithic period.
• Archchaeological Excavation: An excavation at Mallapadi in 1977-78 revealed four cultural periods, with the earliest showing megalithic traits mixed with some lingering Neolithic features.

(ix) One of the Mahajanapadas’ capital and associated with Buddha’s miracle

Shravasti

• Location:
  • Situated in Uttar Pradesh, near the Rapti River
  • Was the capital of the Mahajanapada of Kosala during the 6th century BCE
• Prominence in Buddhism:
  • One of the most important sites in Buddhism
  • Gautama Buddha spent the largest portion of his monastic life here after enlightenment
  • Referred to in Pali Canon as a significant site of Buddhist activity
  • Known as the place of “Twin Miracles”, where Buddha demonstrated his supernatural abilities
• Jetavana Monastery:
  • Built through a donation by Anathapindada, a wealthy merchant
  • One of Buddha’s main retreats and centers for Buddhist teaching and monastic life
• Architectural and Excavation Features:
  • Excavations have revealed:
    • Ancient stupas
    • Monastic cells
    • Religious structures
  • Evidence of urban planning and religious architecture
• Historical Inscriptions and Artefacts:
  • A Bodhisattva statue discovered by John Marshall and Daya Ram Sahni in 1910
    • Lines 1–3: Brahmi script from the 1st century CE
    • Line 4: Later addition in a Nagari variant, likely 9th century CE
• Cultural and Religious Syncretism:
  • Important to Jainism as well
    • Known as Chandrapuri in Jain texts
    • Shobhanath Temple is believed to be the birthplace of Jain Tirthankara Sambhavnath
  • Showcases religious diversity and tolerance
• Later Historical Context:
  • Was a major ancient trade center
  • During Hiuen Tsang’s visit in the 7th century CE, Sravasti was found to be in ruins

(x) Hominid fossil find site

Hathnora

• Location:
  • Situated on the northern bank of the Narmada River, in Sehore district, Madhya Pradesh.
• Key Discoveries:
  • A fossilized fragment of a skull cap along with vertebrate fossils and Acheulian tools was discovered by Arun Sonakia.
  • The skull belonged to a woman around 30 years old, considered to represent an advanced variety of Homo erectus (also referred to as Narmada Man).
  • A hominid clavicle (collar bone) was later found by A. R. Sankhyan, along with animal fossils and Paleolithic tools.
  • Two sets of human fossils possibly belonged to the same individual.
• Chronology:
  • Estimated to date from 0.5 to 0.2 million years ago (mya).

(xi) Major rock edict of Ashoka

Kalsi

• Located in Khalsi village, near Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
• The Rock edicts of Khalsi, also spelled Kalsi, are a group of an Indian rock inscriptions written by the Indian Emperor Ashoka around 250 BCE.
• The inscription in Khalsi contains all the Major Rock Edicts, from 1 to 14.
• Written in Brahmi script and Pali language
  • Fourteen edicts reflect Asoka’s humane approach in his internal administration, his fatherly concern for the moral and spiritual welfare of his subjects, and his commitment to non-violence and abandonment of warfare.

(xii) Ancient trade centre

Dantapuram (Srikakulam)

• Dantapuram (or Dantapura) was a significant ancient trade center and port city located in the Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh.
• It is situated on the southern bank of the Vamsadhara River.
• Dantapur was likely the capital of the ancient Kalinga Kingdom.
• According to Buddhist texts, the city was named Dantapura after a tooth relic of Buddha was enshrined there.
• Trade and Religious Center: Dantapur was a flourishing trade and religious center, lying on a major route connecting the north and south of India.
  • International Trade: Archaeological evidence suggests Dantapur played a role in international maritime trade, with findings pointing to connections with Romans and Southeast Asia.
  • Mentioned in Ancient Texts: Dantapur is mentioned in ancient texts like Pliny’s Natural History, the Mahavamsa (a Buddhist chronicle), and the Jatakas.
• The proximity to Kalingapatnam, another important port in the Srikakulam district, suggests a network of trade and cultural exchange in the region. 

(xiii) Stone inscription recording land grants with tax exemptions

Nashik

• The earliest stone inscriptions that record land grants with tax exemptions in ancient India are the Satavahana and Kshatrapa epigraphs found at Nashik. 
• These inscriptions, located in the Nashik Caves (also known as Pandavleni Caves or Trirashmi Caves), provide valuable insights into the administrative and social practices of the Satavahana and Western Kshatrapa rulers. 
• Specifically, an inscription from Nashik Cave 11, dated to the 18th year of Gautamiputra Satakarni’s reign, is significant. It reaffirms a land grant to Buddhist monks residing at the Triraśmi peak. This land had been previously donated by Nahapana’s son-in-law, Rishabhadatta (also known as Ushavadata). 
• The inscription details the privileges and exemptions associated with the gifted land, including: 
  • Tax exemption: The ascetics were to enjoy tax exemption.
  • Non-interference from royal officials: Royal officials were prohibited from interfering with the donated land.
  • No forced labor: The ascetics were not required to provide forced labor. 
• These grants, which included exemptions like: 
  • “no entry of the army”
  • “no administrative control of the king”
  • “no digging for salt by royal officers” 
• demonstrate the king’s authority to confer such benefits and reveal the economic and social structure of the time.
• The practice of granting land with such exemptions grew significantly from the 4th century CE onwards. These grants were made not only to religious institutions but also to individuals for both religious and secular purposes, such as acknowledging services to the empire.  

(xiv) Shiva temples named after family relationships

Sirpur Temple Complex

• Location:
  • Located in Mahasamund district, Chhattisgarh
  • Situated on the banks of the Mahanadi River
• Religious and Cultural Significance:
  • Major religious centre between the 6th and 10th centuries CE
  • Flourished as a multi-religious centre of Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Buddhism, and Jainism
  • Reflects a period of religious syncretism, tolerance, and cultural diversity
• Architectural Features:
  • Lakshmana Temple (dedicated to Vishnu):
    • Built of red brick and stone
    • Early Nagara style with:
      • Recessed sanctum (garbhagriha)
      • Antarala (vestibule)
      • Mandapa (pillared hall)
  • Other significant temples:
    • Gandheshwar Temple (Shaiva)
    • Teevardev Temple (Vaishnava)
• Buddhist Heritage:
  • Discovery of:
    • Monasteries (viharas)
    • A massive Buddha Vihara
    • Inscriptions of Xuanzang
    • Rare image of Avalokiteshvara
  • Confirms Sirpur’s inclusion in early Mahayana Buddhist networks
• Dynastic Patronage:
  • Flourished under the Sharabhapuriya and Somavamsi rulers
  • Inscriptions mention royal patronage and donations to both Brahmanical and Buddhist institutions
• Artistic Importance:
  • Carvings depict:
    • Ramayana scenes
    • Krishna Leela episodes
    • Buddhist Jataka tales
  • Reflects iconographic blending and high artistic craftsmanship
  • Terracotta art from Sirpur is renowned for its narrative richness and detailing

Mama Bhanja temple

• Mama Bhanja Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is an ancient temple situated in Barsur, Chhattisgarh. Constructed in the 11th century, it stands approximately 50 feet tall and is renowned for its intricate stone carvings depicting foliage, lotuses, and other motifs.
• The temple’s architecture features a curvilinear shikhara (spire) and a raised platform, exemplifying the Nagara style of temple architecture.
• According to legend, the temple was built in a single day by a maternal uncle and his nephew, whose statues adorn the temple’s upper structure.
• The temple is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India and is a significant historical and architectural landmark in the region.

(xv) Place of art-related inscription

Sittanavasal Caves

• Location
  • Located in Pudukkottai district, Tamil Nadu
• Cultural and Historical Background
  • Site includes both Megalithic burials and Jain cave heritage
  • Caves date to the reign of Pallava King Mahendravarman I (580–630 CE)
  • Known as an important Jain centre in early medieval Tamil region
• Burial Evidence
  • Various types of megalithic burials found nearby:
    • Stone circles
    • Cist burials
    • Urn burials
  • Associated findings include:
    • Pottery
    • Iron tools
    • Glass manufacturing debris
• Sittanavasal Cave Temple
  • A rock-cut Jain temple-cave known for both sculpture and paintings
  • Reflects early Tamil Jainism and Pallava art
  • Important for the study of Jain monastic life and cave architecture
• Painting Features
  • Mural paintings executed in fresco-secco technique
  • Depictions include:
    • Lotus pond with blooming lotus flowers
    • People collecting lotuses
    • Dancing figures
    • Animals such as fish, buffaloes, and elephants
  • Paintings reflect themes of nature, devotion, and daily life
  • Early example of secular and religious art in Tamil Nadu

(xvi) Place of inscription of three languages

Maski

• In Raichur district, Karnataka.
• Neolithic-Chalcolithic and Megalithic cultures.
• Minor Rock Edict of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka found.
  • First edict of Emperor Ashoka that contained the name Ashoka.
• Artefacts:
  • Polished stone tools, microlithic blades, and copper rod.
  • Beads of carnelian, agate, chalcedony, shell, coral, glass, and paste.
• Pottery:
  • Red ware
  • BRW
  • Incised designs on some pottery.
• Animal bones found.
• Rock paintings found.
• Subsistence base:
  • agriculture,
  • animal domestication,
  • hunting.

(xvii) Temple site where three styles of temple architecture are found

Pattadakal

• Pattadakal located in Bagalkot district of Karnataka was not only popular for Chalukyan architectural activities but also a holy place for royal coronation, ‘Pattadakisuvolal’.
• Temples constructed here mark the blending of the Rekha, Nagara, Prasada and the Dravida Vimana styles of temple building.
• The oldest temple at Pattadakal is Sangamesvara built by Vijayaditya Satyasraya (AD 697-733).
• The other notable temples at Pattadakal are the Kadasiddhesvara, Jambulingeswara both attributed to 7th century A.D. while Galaganatha temple was built a century later in the style of Rekha Nagara Prasada.
• The Kasivisvesvara temple was the last to be built in early Chalukyan style.
• The Mallikarjuna temple was constructed by Rani Trilokyamahadevi to celebrate the victory over the Pallavas by Vikramaditya II.
• The Virupaksha temple later served as a model for the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna I (757 -783 A.D.) to carve out the great Kailasa at Ellora. However, the last addition at Pattadakal was made during the reign of Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna II of the 9th century A.D.
• In form of a Jaina temple, locally famous as Jaina Narayana, with its two lower storeys functional.
• The Sangamesvara, Virupaksha and Mallikarjuna temples at Pattadakkal exhibit to a large degree the southerly elements in their vimanas, as crystallized in the contemporary Pallava temples.
• Pattadakal, the ‘City of the Crown Rubies’ (Pattada Kisuvolal) was, moreover, for a brief time the third capital city of the Chalukya kingdom; at the time the Pallava occupied Badami (642-55).

(xviii) Jain pilgrimage site

Vallabhi

• Location:
  • Situated in Bhavnagar district, Saurashtra region, Gujarat.
• Historical Importance:
  • Served as the capital of the Maitraka Dynasty from c. 480 to 775 CE.
  • Founded by Senapati Bhatarka, the founder of the Maitraka dynasty.
• Religious and Cultural Significance:
  • A renowned centre of learning and home to several Buddhist monasteries.
  • Attracted scholars and students from across India and abroad.
• Pilgrim Accounts:
  • Visited by the Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and Yijing in the 7th century CE.
  • Described as a prosperous city with numerous Buddhist viharas and educational institutions.
• Jain Connection:
  • Hosted the Second Jaina Council under Acharya Devardhigani Kshamashramana in the 6th century CE.
  • During this council, the Jaina scriptures (Agamas) were compiled and standardized, assuming their present form.

Palitana

• Located in Bhavnagar district, Gujarat and a major pilgrimage centre for Jains.
• Adinatha, the first of the Jain tirthankaras, is said to have meditated on the Shatrunjaya hill, where the Palitana temples were later constructed.
• It is one of the most sacred sites of Svetambara tradition within Jainism.
• Jains believe that 23 of 24 Jain Tirthankaras, except Neminatha, sanctified the Palitana hill by their visits.
• There are more than 3000 temples located on the Shatrunjaya hills, exquisitely carved in marble bulit by Jains from the 11th century onwards.
  • The main temple on top of the hill, is dedicated to the first Tirthankara Rishabhanatha (Adinatha).

(xix) Shiva temple of Gupta period

Dah Parbatiya

• Location:
  • Situated in Sonitpur district, Assam, near Tezpur, on the western edge of the Brahmaputra Valley
• Chronology and Historical Context:
  • Dates to the 5th–6th century CE, corresponding to the late Gupta period
  • Possibly built during or just before the reign of Bhaskaravarman of Kamarupa
  • Later, during the Ahom period, a brick Shiva temple was constructed over the ruins of this ancient structure
• Architectural Significance:
  • One of the earliest stone temples in the region
  • The temple had a brick superstructure (now lost) supported on stone foundations
  • Sanctum (Garbhagriha) surrounded by a circumambulatory path (Pradakshina patha)
  • Colonnaded mandapa at the front
  • Stone altar (vedi) at the centre of the sanctum
  • Excavations revealed stone-paved layout plan of the sanctum and mandapa
• Iconography and Sculptural Features:
  • Famous for its elaborately carved stone door frame
  • High-relief carvings include:
    • River goddesses Ganga and Yamuna
    • Flying geese (Hamsa)
    • Attendant figures
    • Floral and geometric motifs
    • Influence of Hellenistic architectural style
  • Carvings show Gupta sculptural style and early Odishan influences
• Archaeological Findings:
  • Excavations yielded numerous terracotta plaques
  • Many plaques depict human figures in sitting posture
  • Representing early artistic traditions in Assam
• Cultural and Historical Importance:
  • Marks the spread of Gupta-era temple-building traditions into northeastern India
  • Acts as a precursor to later medieval Assamese temples
  • Reflects Hindu religious art and architectural practices in early historic Assam
• Heritage Status:
  • Protected under the Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites Act
  • Serves as a rare and valuable example of early Hindu temple architecture in Northeast India

(xx) Megalithic monumental site

Vangchhia in Champhai

• Vangchhia, located in the Champhai district of Mizoram, is a significant megalithic site known for its large number of menhirs (standing stones) and petroglyphs (rock carvings).
• It is considered Mizoram’s first protected archaeological site and is known as the Kawtchhuah Ropui heritage site, meaning “Great Entranceway”.
• Key Features:
  • Menhirs:
    • The site features over 100 menhirs, some standing as tall as 15 feet, with carvings of floral, animal, and human figures.
  • Petroglyphs:
    • Vangchhia also includes petroglyphs etched on large stone slabs, depicting various scenes and symbols.
  • Water Pavilion:
    • The presence of a water pavilion, with strategically drilled holes for water storage, suggests the existence of a prosperous ancient settlement.
  • Terraces:
    • Ancient people carved terraces into the rocks, likely for their settlements, with 15 excavated terraces currently identified.