Philosophy Optional · Paper I · Indian Philosophy
Nyaya-Vaisesika Notes · PYQs
Free notes and every UPSC previous year question for Nyaya-Vaisesika, Unit 15 of Paper I, Section B: the official syllabus, 13 topic-wise notes in syllabus order, and all 79 questions from 1990 to 2026 grouped by sub-topic.
13
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79
Questions listed
39
Asked since 2013
1990–2026
Years covered
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Syllabus Free notes Previous year questions All Philosophy units
Official UPSC syllabus
Nyaya-Vaisesika: syllabus
The syllabus text for this unit in Paper I, Section B (Indian Philosophy) of Philosophy Optional. Every note and question on this page maps to it.
Theory of Categories; Theory of Appearance; Theory of Pramana; Self, Liberation; God; Proofs for the Existence of God; Theory of Causation; Atomistic Theory of Creation.
Paper I · Section B · Unit 15
Nyaya-Vaisesika notes
Topic-wise notes for this unit in syllabus order, written for UPSC Mains in plain language, with diagrams and the previous year questions on each topic.
Free notes
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Nyāya–Vaiśeṣika as Samāna-tantra: Sixteen Padārthas, Pramā and Pramāṇa, Rejection of Memory, Anuvyavasāya and Parataḥ Prāmāṇyavāda
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Nyāya Theory of Perception (Pratyakṣa): Gautama’s Definition and Its Revision, Sannikarṣa, Nirvikalpa–Savikalpa, Pratyabhijñā and Alaukika Perception
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Anumāna: Pakṣa–Sādhya–Hetu, Svārtha and Parārtha, the Five-Membered Syllogism, Kinds of Inference, Five Marks of a Valid Hetu and the Hetvābhāsas
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Vyāpti and Vyāptigraha: How Universal Relations Are Known — Anvaya–Vyatireka, Upādhi, Tarka, Sāmānyalakṣaṇa and the Nyāya Reply to Cārvāka and Hume
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Upamāna and Śabda: Comparison as a Pramāṇa, the Āpta, Ākāṅkṣā–Yogyatā–Sannidhi–Tātparya, Kinds of Śabda, Lakṣaṇā and the Śābdabodha Debate with Mīmāṃsā
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Theory of Appearance: Nyāya Realism and Error — Anyathākhyāti, Jñānalakṣaṇa and the Rival Khyātivādas (Akhyāti, Viparītakhyāti, Ātmakhyāti, Asatkhyāti, Anirvacanīyakhyāti)
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Vaiśeṣika Theory of Categories I: Padārtha, Bhāva and Abhāva, the Nine Dravyas, the Twenty-four Guṇas and the Five Karmas
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Vaiśeṣika Theory of Categories II: Sāmānya, Viśeṣa and Samavāya — Universals, Ultimate Particulars and Inherence, with the Debates against Buddhists, Advaita and Others
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Abhāva: Non-Existence as the Seventh Category — Saṃsargābhāva and Anyonyābhāva, Prāgabhāva, Pratiyogin, and How Absence Is Known (Nyāya, Bhāṭṭa, Prābhākara, Buddhist)
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Theory of Causation: Asatkāryavāda and Ārambhavāda — Definition of Cause, Five Anyathāsiddhas, Three Kinds of Cause, Prāgabhāva, and the Debate with Sāṃkhya, Buddhism and Advaita
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Atomistic Theory of Creation: Paramāṇuvāda, Dvyaṇuka and Tryaṇuka, Adṛṣṭa and Īśvara, Sṛṣṭi and Pralaya, Critiques, and Comparison with Greek and Modern Atomism
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Self and Liberation in Nyāya–Vaiśeṣika: Ātman as Substance, Consciousness as an Adventitious Quality, the Six Marks of the Self, Rival Views, Bondage and Apavarga
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Nyāya Theism: The Nature of Īśvara and Udayana’s Proofs for the Existence of God, Critiques, and Comparison with Yoga and Western Proofs
Free practice
Previous year questions: Nyaya-Vaisesika
All 79 questions UPSC has set from this unit between 1990 and 2026, grouped by sub-topic with the most-asked first, newest first within each. Questions from 2013 onwards are shown; earlier ones open on a tap.
How often UPSC asks each sub-topic
| Sub-topic | Questions | Since 2013 | Last asked |
|---|---|---|---|
| Perception | 11 | 4 | 2025 |
| Inference | 9 | 4 | 2026 |
| Causation | 8 | 4 | 2025 |
| Pramana Theory | 8 | 4 | 2025 |
| Abhava | 7 | 5 | 2024 |
| Padartha | 7 | 3 | 2020 |
| Vyapti | 7 | 1 | 2013 |
| Samavaya | 4 | 4 | 2026 |
| Upamana and Sabda | 4 | 3 | 2026 |
| Self | 4 | 2 | 2024 |
| Samanya | 3 | 1 | 2022 |
| God | 3 | 2 | 2019 |
| Theory of Error | 3 | 2 | 2019 |
| Atomism | 1 | 0 | 1995 |
Perception
11 questions · 4 since 2013 · last asked 2025
Asked since 2013 · 4
2025Present a detailed account of Gautama’s definition of Perception. (20 marks)2023Elucidate Naiyayikas view of ordinary and extraordinary perception. Are they justified in accepting that universals are perceived? Discuss. (15 marks)2017Explain the early Nyaya definition of perception. Why this definition is considered inadequate by the later Naiyayikas ? (20 marks)2014Bring out the philosophical implications of introducing extraordinary (alaukika) perception in Nyaya philosophy. (20 marks)
Show 7 earlier questions (before 2013)
1991–2010 · 7 questions
2010Explain the reason for introducing the notion of extraordinary perception in nyaya-epistemology (30 marks)2005Natures and kinds of Pratyaksha according to Nyaya (20 marks)1998Define perception according to Nyaya and explain clearly various types of perception (60 marks)1996Alaukika-Pratyaksa. (20 marks)1995Modes of perception according to Nyaya (20 marks)1992Explain and critically examine the nature, conditions and validity of pratyaksa pramana according to the Nyaya and Vijnanavada schools. (60 marks)1991Analyze the definition of Perception and explain with examples the classification of Perception according to Nyaya (60 marks)
Inference
9 questions · 4 since 2013 · last asked 2026
Asked since 2013 · 4
2026According to Nyaya view of inference (Anumana), what are the characteristics that ascertain the validity of inferential sign (Hetu)? Discuss. (10 marks)2023Elucidate Naiyayikas account of fallacies of the middle term in relation to five characteristics of a valid middle term. (20 marks)2022How do Naiyayikas respond to Carvika’s objections against inference (anumana) and establish inference as an independent means of knowledge? Critically discuss. (15 marks)2017Explain the conditions of valid hetu as propounded in Nyaya philosophy. (10 marks)
Show 5 earlier questions (before 2013)
1995–2009 · 5 questions
2009Hetvabhasa according to Nyaya (20 marks)2004Nature and kind of anumanas according to Nyaya (20 marks)1998Discuss the nature and structure of interference according to the Nyaya philosophy and explain the importance of the various steps of pararthanumana (60 marks)1995What is meant by hetvabhasa in Indian logic? Is it formal or material? What according to Nyaya are its kinds? Explain. (60 marks)1995How do we get valid knowledge according to Nyaya Philosophy. Explain the concept of ‘Anumana’ in this context. (60 marks)
Causation
8 questions · 4 since 2013 · last asked 2025
Asked since 2013 · 4
2025Present an exposition of Nyaya-Vaisheshika’s theory of causation. (10 marks)2023Write a note on Nyaya notion of Pragabhava (prior non-existence). How does this notion help Naiyayikas in defending their position on causation against the Samkhya View of causation ? Critically discuss. (15 marks)2021Does the seed contain the tree? Discuss with reference to Nyaya-Vaišeshika Philosophy. (10 marks)2020Explain the concepts of ‘Anyathasiddha’ and ‘Ananyathâsiddha’ in the context of Asatkaryavada. (15 marks)
Show 4 earlier questions (before 2013)
1997–2007 · 4 questions
2007Explain fully Nyaya’s Asatkaryavada (60 marks)2000Examine the Vaisesika theory of causality (Asatkaryavada). (60 marks)1999The Nyaya theory of causality (20 marks)1997Evaluate the Buddhist critique of the Nyaya theory of causation. (60 marks)
Pramana Theory
8 questions · 4 since 2013 · last asked 2025
Asked since 2013 · 4
2025Present an exposition of the debate between Naiyayikas and Buddhists with reference to the notion of Pramana and Pramanaphala. (10 marks)2025Delineate the main points of difference between the theory of intrinsic validation (svatah pramanyavada) and theory of extrinsic validation (pratah pramanyavada) in classical Indian philosophy. (10 marks)2024How do I know that I know? Answer this question with reference to the Naiyayikas, the Bhatta Mimamsakas, and the Prabhakaras. (20 marks)2024On what grounds do the Prabhakaras and the Naiyayikas reject memory as a source of knowledge? Discuss. (15 marks)
Show 4 earlier questions (before 2013)
1996–2006 · 4 questions
2006Explain Nyaya theory of Pramanas (60 marks)1999What is self-validity of knowledge? Examine the Purva-Mimamsaka arguments against the theory of extrinsic validity of Knowledge (60 marks)1997Svatah-pramanya and paratah-pramanya (20 marks)1996Examine the Nyaya theory of Pramana in the light of the Buddhist-criticism of it (60 marks)
Abhava
7 questions · 5 since 2013 · last asked 2024
Asked since 2013 · 5
2024Do these two sentences “Air does not have heat” and “Air is not fire” refer to the same type of absence or abhava, according to the Vaisheshikas? Discuss. (10 marks)2023Present an account of Vaiseshika’s view of negation in the light of their statement. “Negation always has a counterpositive and absolute negation is an impossibility (10 marks)2019Justify the status of Abhava as a category in Vaisesika philosophy. (10 marks)2018How do the Buddhists and the Nyaya philosophers explain our knowledge of ‘the absence of the jar on the table’? Answer in detail. (10 marks)2016How do the Naiyayikas justify the introduction of ‘Abhava’ as an independent category ? Explain. (20 marks)
Show 2 earlier questions (before 2013)
2009–2011 · 2 questions
2011Why do the Vaisesikas treat Abhava as an independent category? Explain (15 marks)2009Compare the viewpoints of Nyaya, Vaisesika, Mimansa and Buddhism on the issue of knowledge of abhava (60 marks)
Padartha
7 questions · 3 since 2013 · last asked 2020
Asked since 2013 · 3
2020Critically evaluate the logical and metaphysical status of Visesa in the context of Vaisesika Philosophy. (15 marks)2017What are the necessary characteristics of padartha according to Vaiseshika philosophy? (10 marks)2015‘Our knowledge is confined to gunas alone’. Examine this statement in the light of Vaisheshika and Buddhist controversy. (15 marks)
Show 4 earlier questions (before 2013)
1995–2010 · 4 questions
2010Can qualities exist without substance? Substantiate your views.in the light of Nyaya-Buddhism controversy? (20 marks)2005State and discuss the nature and kinds of Dravyas according to Vaisesikas (60 marks)1997Padartha (20 marks)1995Give an account of the chief tenets of Vaisesika metaphysics (60 marks)
Vyapti
7 questions · 1 since 2013 · last asked 2013
Asked since 2013 · 1
2013Analyse the Nyaya concept of vyapti and examine its relation to tarka. (12.5 marks)
Show 6 earlier questions (before 2013)
1990–2008 · 6 questions
2008Discuss critically Nyaya notion of Vyapti (60 marks)2001Evaluate the Nyaya-Vaisesika theory of the nature of Vyapti (20 marks)2000The Nyaya view of our knowledge of generalizations (Vyapti) (20 marks)1999Explain the Nyaya-Vaisesika theory of vyapti and vyapti-jnana (60 marks)1994What is ‘Vyapti’? How is it known? Discuss with special reference of the Nyaya System. (60 marks)1990What is Universal relation (Vyapti) according to the Nyaya? How is it ascertained? (60 marks)
Samavaya
4 questions · 4 since 2013 · last asked 2026
Asked since 2013 · 4
2026Critically explain the nature of Samavaya (inherence) as propounded in Vaisheshika philosophy. (10 marks)2021Is ‘inseparability’ (ayuta-siddhatva) a necessary condition or a sufficient condition for defining characteristics (laksana) of samavaya (inherence)? Explain with reference to Vaiseshika Philosophy.’ (10 marks)2018How do the Vaišeshika philosophers explain the difference of the relationships in the Iwo cases-(i) the brown color of the table and (ii) the book on the table? Discuss. (10 marks)2013What is samavaya ? What are the grounds for accepting samavaya as a distinct padartha ? Discuss. (12.5 marks)
Upamana and Sabda
4 questions · 3 since 2013 · last asked 2026
Asked since 2013 · 3
2026Bring out the main points of contestation between Naiyayikas and Prabhakara Mimamsakas with reference to knowledge through words (Shabdabodha). (15 marks)2026Present an account of Upamana as an instrument of knowledge (Pramana). How is Nyaya view of Upamana different from Mimamsa view? Discuss. (20 marks)2021Explain with reference to Nyaya Philosophy, the nature of sabda as the advice of apta (a reliable person). (10 marks)
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)
1991 · 1 question
1991Explain the conditions that are to be fulfilled for construing the meaning and describe different types of secondary meaning. (60 marks)
Self
4 questions · 2 since 2013 · last asked 2024
Asked since 2013 · 2
2024Explain the six reasons offered by the Naiyayikas to prove the existence of the self. (10 marks)2013Examine, the Nyaya-Vaisheshika arguments for the existence of jivatma (soul) . (12.5 marks)
Show 2 earlier questions (before 2013)
1996–2002 · 2 questions
2002Nyaya view of Self (20 marks)1996Examine the Nyaya arguments against the Advaitic view of the nature of Atman (60 marks)
Samanya
3 questions · 1 since 2013 · last asked 2022
Asked since 2013 · 1
2022What is the ontological status of Samanya, according to Vaisesika Philosophy ? Critically examine. (10 marks)
Show 2 earlier questions (before 2013)
2003–2008 · 2 questions
2008Samanya in Vaisesika (20 marks)2003The Nyaya-vaisesika view of Samanya (20 marks)
God
3 questions · 2 since 2013 · last asked 2019
Asked since 2013 · 2
2019How does Udayana prove the existence of God through Karyat, Ayojanat, Dhrtyadeh and Sruteh? Discuss. (20 marks)2018How do the Naiyayikas prove the existence of God? Do the Yoga philosophers prove God in the same way? If yes, how? And if not, why? Give reasons for your answer. (20 marks)
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)
2011 · 1 question
2011Do you find any inadequacy in the proofs for the existence of God as given by Naiyayikas? Give reasons in support of your answer (15 marks)
Theory of Error
3 questions · 2 since 2013 · last asked 2019
Asked since 2013 · 2
2019What is the role of Jnanalaksana-pratyaka in explaining Anyathakhyati? (15 marks)2015Is anyathakhyativada an adequate explanation of error? Elaborate. (15 marks)
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)
1993 · 1 question
1993How is error explained in Nyaya and Advaita Philosophy? Which explanation is more reasonable and why? (60 marks)
Atomism
1 question · 0 since 2013 · last asked 1995
1995 · 1 question
1995What is the nature of ultimate substance according to vaisesika philosophy? Would it be right to say that the idea of the ultimate substance as given by the vaisesika thinkers is an anticipation of modern scientific in this context? Discuss (60 marks)
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