Philosophy Optional · Paper II · Philosophy of Religion
Nature of Religious Language Notes · PYQs
Free notes and every UPSC previous year question for Nature of Religious Language, Unit 20 of Paper II, Section B: the official syllabus, 9 topic-wise notes in syllabus order, and all 31 questions from 2000 to 2026 grouped by sub-topic.
9
Free notes
31
Questions listed
22
Asked since 2013
2000–2026
Years covered
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Syllabus Free notes Previous year questions All Philosophy units
Official UPSC syllabus
Nature of Religious Language: syllabus
The syllabus text for this unit in Paper II, Section B (Philosophy of Religion) of Philosophy Optional. Every note and question on this page maps to it.
Nature of Religious Language: Analogical and Symbolic; Cognitivist and Non-cognitive.
Paper II · Section B · Unit 20
Nature of Religious Language notes
Topic-wise notes for this unit in syllabus order, written for UPSC Mains in plain language, with diagrams and the previous year questions on each topic.
Free notes
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The Problem of Religious Language: Finite Words for an Infinite God, Religious vs Secular Use, Realism vs Non-realism, and the Map of Cognitive, Analogical, Symbolic and Non-cognitive Theories
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Speaking of God by Negation and Analogy: the Via Negativa, Univocal, Equivocal and Analogical Language, Aquinas’ Analogy of Attribution and Proportionality, Ramsey’s Models and Qualifiers, and the Critics
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Religious Language as Symbolic: Tillich’s Sign and Symbol, the Six Marks of a Symbol, Being-itself and Ultimate Concern, Myth and Demythologising, Sacred Space and Time, Metaphor and Pratīka
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The Verification Challenge: Logical Positivism and God-talk, Ayer and Carnap, Strong and Weak Verification, Wisdom’s Gods, the Critiques, and Hick’s Eschatological Verification
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The Falsification Debate: Flew’s Invisible Gardener and the Death by a Thousand Qualifications, Hare’s Bliks, Mitchell’s Partisan and the Stranger, Crombie, Flew’s Rejoinders and Swinburne
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Non-cognitive Theories of Religious Language I: Emotion, Policy and Story — Emotivism, Santayana, Braithwaite’s Conative Theory, Randall’s Symbols, Naturalist Readings and Non-realism, with Hick’s Objections
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Non-cognitive Theories of Religious Language II: Wittgenstein, Language-Games and Forms of Life — the Last Judgment Lectures, Pictures, Frazer and Ritual, D. Z. Phillips, and Wittgensteinian Fideism
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Religious Language in Indian Philosophy: Neti Neti, Anirvacanīyatā, Lakṣaṇā and Tat Tvam Asi, Mīmāṃsā’s Vidhi and Arthavāda, Bhartṛhari, the Buddha’s Silence, Apoha and Jaina Avaktavya
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Cognitive or Non-cognitive? The Religious Language Debate Weighed: the Cognitivist Account, ‘God Exists’ Read Both Ways, Cognitive Content, Contradictions, Which View Is Most Satisfactory, and an Indian–Western Synthesis
Free practice
Previous year questions: Nature of Religious Language
All 31 questions UPSC has set from this unit between 2000 and 2026, grouped by sub-topic with the most-asked first, newest first within each. Questions from 2013 onwards are shown; earlier ones open on a tap.
How often UPSC asks each sub-topic
| Sub-topic | Questions | Since 2013 | Last asked |
|---|---|---|---|
| Verification/Falsification | 5 | 4 | 2026 |
| Tillich’s Symbolism | 4 | 2 | 2023 |
| Braithwaite | 3 | 3 | 2026 |
| Symbolic Theory | 3 | 2 | 2025 |
| Religious vs Ordinary Use | 3 | 1 | 2018 |
| Analogical Theory | 2 | 1 | 2024 |
| Cognitive vs Non-cognitive | 2 | 2 | 2024 |
| Wittgenstein | 2 | 1 | 2023 |
| Cognitivist Account | 2 | 1 | 2020 |
| Evaluating Theories | 2 | 2 | 2017 |
| Non-cognitivist Account | 2 | 2 | 2014 |
| Anirvachaniyata | 1 | 1 | 2025 |
Verification/Falsification
5 questions · 4 since 2013 · last asked 2026
Asked since 2013 · 4
2026Analyse R. M. Hare’s concept of ‘blik’ and assess whether it successfully defends the meaningfulness of religious language. (20 marks)2015How can the religious language be verified? Is it correct to say that religious language is verified because it cannot be falsified? Discuss. (20 marks)2013Can religious language be said to be verifiable? (15 marks)2013Do cognitivists provide a cogent answer to the objection based on falsifiability? (15 marks)
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)
2011 · 1 question
2011Are religious doctrines and debates verifiable? Discuss (20 marks)
Tillich’s Symbolism
4 questions · 2 since 2013 · last asked 2023
Asked since 2013 · 2
2023Explain the symbolic nature of religious language according to Tillich. (15 marks)2021Explain the symbolic nature of religious language with special reference to Paul Tillich. (15 marks)
Show 2 earlier questions (before 2013)
2004–2012 · 2 questions
2012Analyse Paul Tillich’s statement that “symbolic language alone is able to express the ultimate. (20 marks)2004Man’s ultimate concern must be expressed symbolically because symbolic language alone is able to express the ultimate.” – Paul Tillich. Critical notes (20 marks)
Braithwaite
3 questions · 3 since 2013 · last asked 2026
Asked since 2013 · 3
2026Critically discuss the views of R. B. Braithwaite on the nature of religious language. (10 marks)2021What is the non-cognitive theory of religious language? Explain critically in the light of R.B. Braithwaite’s views. (20 marks)2018Critically examine Braithwaite’s non-cognitive theory of religious language. (15 marks)
Symbolic Theory
3 questions · 2 since 2013 · last asked 2025
Asked since 2013 · 2
2025Is religious language symbolic? Give reasons and justification in support of your answer. (10 marks)2018Explain the significance of religious symbols as transcendent referent that mediates into the cultural, spatial and temporal world. (15 marks)
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)
2009 · 1 question
2009Is religious language symbolic? Discuss (20 marks)
Religious vs Ordinary Use
3 questions · 1 since 2013 · last asked 2018
Asked since 2013 · 1
2018In what sense is the secular use of language different from the religious use of language? Discuss. (10 marks)
Show 2 earlier questions (before 2013)
2001–2010 · 2 questions
2010Religious language is dependent on natural language for an analogy and a symbol of work. Why not treat religious language as a specialized language like telegraphic language? Discuss (20 marks)2001To be religious means to belong to some religious order (20 marks)
Analogical Theory
2 questions · 1 since 2013 · last asked 2024
Asked since 2013 · 1
2024Explain the analogical nature of religious language. (10 marks)
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)
2000 · 1 question
2000Analogical theory of religious language. (20 marks)
Cognitive vs Non-cognitive
2 questions · 2 since 2013 · last asked 2024
Asked since 2013 · 2
2024Distinguish between cognitivist and non-cognitivist account of religious language. Does the cognitivist account lead to any contradiction? Answer with reference to the philosophical views of R. B. Braithwaite. (20 marks)2022Explain the difference between the cognitivist and non-cognitivist approaches to the religious language with reference to the statement– “God exists”. (10 marks)
Wittgenstein
2 questions · 1 since 2013 · last asked 2023
Asked since 2013 · 1
2023Discuss Wittgenstein’s view about the non-cognitive nature of religious language. (10 marks)
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)
2011 · 1 question
2011Examine the view that, religious doctrines are not ‘quasi-scientific doctrines but represent a form of life (20 marks)
Cognitivist Account
2 questions · 1 since 2013 · last asked 2020
Asked since 2013 · 1
2020Does religious language carry cognitive content? Elucidate in detail. (20 marks)
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)
2012 · 1 question
2012Discuss the cognitivist account of the nature of religious language (20 marks)
Evaluating Theories
2 questions · 2 since 2013 · last asked 2017
Asked since 2013 · 2
2017Is not the language of analogies more confusing and the language of symbols more unintelligible? Evaluate it in the case of a religious language. (20 marks)2016Among the different views of religious language, which one is more satisfactory and why? (15 marks)
Non-cognitivist Account
2 questions · 2 since 2013 · last asked 2014
Asked since 2013 · 2
2014How do you formulate religious language as non-cognitive? (15 marks)2013What is meant by saying that religious language is non-cognitive? (20 marks)
Anirvachaniyata
1 question · 1 since 2013 · last asked 2025
Asked since 2013 · 1
2025Discuss the Advaitic notion of indescribability (anirvachaniyata) in the context of nature of religious language. (15 marks)
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