Anthropology Optional · Paper I · General Anthropology

Anthropological Theories Notes · PYQs

Free notes and every UPSC previous year question for Anthropological Theories (Anthropology Optional Paper I, Unit 06), arranged by syllabus sub-topic so you can read a topic and immediately see how UPSC has asked it. Syllabus: Classical evolutionism, historical particularism, diffusionism, functionalism, structuralism, culture and personality, neo-evolutionism, cultural materialism, symbolic, cognitive and postmodern theories.

11

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115

Questions listed

42

Asked since 2013

1981–2026

Years covered

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Syllabus Free notes Previous year questions All Anthropology units

Official UPSC syllabus

Anthropological Theories: syllabus

The syllabus text as UPSC notifies it for Paper I of Anthropology Optional. Every note and question on this page maps to these lines. Full Paper I and Paper II syllabus.

6 Anthropological theories:
(a) Classical evolutionism (Tylor, Morgan and Frazer)
(b) Historical particularism (Boas) Diffusionism (British, German and American)
(c) Functionalism (Malinowski); Structural—Functionlism (Radcliffe-Brown)
(d) Structuralism (L’evi-Strauss and E. Leach)
(e) Culture and personality (Benedict, Mead, Linton, Kardiner and Cora-du Bois)
(f) Neo—evolutionism (Childe, White, Steward, Sahlins and Service)
(g) Cultural materialism (Harris)
(h) Symbolic and interpretive theories (Turner, Schneider and Geertz)
(i) Cognitive theories (Tyler, Conklin)
(j) Post-modernism in anthropology.

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Previous year questions: Anthropological Theories

All 115 questions UPSC has set from this unit between 1981 and 2026, grouped by syllabus sub-topic, newest first. Questions from 2013 onwards (the current pattern) are shown in full; earlier ones open on a tap.

How often UPSC asks each sub-topic

Sub-topicQuestionsSince 2013Last asked
Anthropological theories115422026

Anthropological theories

115 questions · 42 since 2013 · last asked 2026
Read the notes: Classical Evolutionism · Historical Particularism · Diffusionism · Functionalism · Structural-Functionalism · Structuralism · Culture and Personality · Neo-Evolutionism · Cultural Materialism · Symbolic and Cognitive Anthropology · Postmodernism in Anthropology

Classical evolutionism (Tylor, Morgan and Frazer) · notes: Classical Evolutionism

Asked since 2013 · 3

  • 2025Critically examine James Frazer’s theory of evolutionism. Elucidate the place of religion in modernity.
  • 2021Critically evaluate Lewis Morgan’s classification of family.
  • 2015How did Morgan explain the evolution of marriage, family and Socio-Political organization and how did other evolutionists disagree with his explanation ?
Show 5 earlier questions (before 2013)

1981–2012 · 5 questions

  • 2010Point out the differences in the concepts of classical evolutionism and neo- evolutionism in socio-cultural anthropology. Which stage of prehistoric culture is known as cultural revolution and why ?
  • 1996Write a note on Classical evolutionism.
  • 1988Write a note on 19th century evolutionism.
  • 1985Write a note on Contributions of Morgan and Tylor in the history of anthropological thought.
  • 1981Discuss the basic assumptions of 19th century evolutionism. Are these valid today?

Historical particularism (Boas); Diffusionism (British, German and American) · notes: Historical Particularism · Diffusionism

Asked since 2013 · 4

  • 2024Discuss historical particularism as a critical development to the classical evolutionism.
  • 2021Write notes on Historical Particularism and Franz Boas, (in about 150 words).
  • 2015Write a note in 150 words on Historical Particularism.
  • 2015How do diffusionism and evolutionism differ as explanations of Culture Change?
Show 10 earlier questions (before 2013)

1983–2012 · 10 questions

  • 1998Define ‘culture area’. How did it help the American diffusionists to understand diffusion of culture ?
  • 1997Critically examine the Historical Particularistic approach of Franz Boas to the study of culture.
  • 1996What is meant by cultural diffusionism ? Give an account of Fritz Graebner’s contributions to the theory of cultural diffusionism.
  • 1995What was Boas approach of studying primitive cultures ? Delineate the role of field work and history in anthropological study.
  • 1993Bring out the merits and demerits in the British Diffusion Studies and the American Distribution Studies.
  • 1992Write a note on Diffusion and Diffusionism.
  • 1991Write a note on Franz Boas.
  • 1988Write a note on Franz Boas.
  • 1984Distinguish between : British school of diffusion and Austro-German school of diffusion.
  • 1983Diffusionism is an extremist view.Exemplify.

Functionalism (Malinowski); Structural-functionalism (Radcliffe-Brown) · notes: Functionalism · Structural-Functionalism

Asked since 2013 · 7

  • 2023Critically discuss the controversies related to fieldwork of Bronislaw Malinowski and Margaret Mead.
  • 2022Write notes on: Radcliffe-Brown’s ideas on status, role and institution.
  • 2019How did Radcliffe-Brown and Levi-Strauss study kinship in terms of social structure?
  • 2017Write a note in 150 words on Basic tenets of structural-functionalism.
  • 2016Write a note in 150 words on Functionalism.
  • 2014What is functionalism? Discuss the functional approach to the understanding of Religion.
  • 2013In what ways is Functionalism different from Structural Functionalism? (350words).
Show 19 earlier questions (before 2013)

1981–2012 · 19 questions

  • 2008Write a note on Structural functionalism.
  • 2003Describe structural features of social life as suggested by Radcliffe-Brown in his theory of social structure.
  • 2001Discuss the approaches of RadcliffeBrown and Evans-Pritchard to Methods Comparative in Anthropological Research.
  • 1999What is meant by functionalism? Discuss the basic tenets of Malinowski’s functionalism.
  • 1998“To Radcliffe-Brown ‘function’ was the contribution an institution makes to the maintenance of social structure.” Elucidate in the light of RadcliffeBrown’s contributions to structural functionalism theory.
  • 1995Give the names of two prominent British functionalists in social anthropology. Describe the functional theory attributed to any one of them.
  • 1994Write a note on A.R. Radcliffe-Brown.
  • 1992Define social function. Critically evaluate the concepts as postulated by Malinowski.
  • 1990Discuss Malinowski’s contributions to functionalism in social anthropology.
  • 1989Re-examine the view of Radcliffe-Brown in connection with structure and function in Anthropology.
  • 1987Evaluate Malinowski’s contribution to functionalism.
  • 1986Examine Malinowski’s theory of needs and state its merits.
  • 1986Write an essay on ‘structure-function theory of Radcliffe-Brown.’
  • 1984Distinguish between : Note Malinowski’s contribution to functionalism in social anthropology.
  • 1984Evaluate the contribution of Radcliffe Brown for the development of structural method.
  • 1983Functionalism is not confined to Anthropology among social sciences. Elaborate.
  • 1982Discuss contributions of Malinowski. Radcliffe Brown and Firth to the concept of Function.
  • 1981Specify limitations of Radcliffe-Brown’s method of comparison as actually used by him. (200 words).
  • 1981“Structure-functional studies do not explain casual relationships.” Discuss the view.

Structuralism (Levi-Strauss and E. Leach) · notes: Structuralism

Asked since 2013 · 4

  • 2026How is the theory of structuralism helpful in understanding the concepts of caste and gender?
  • 2024How does Lévi-Strauss look at the Tsimshian myth of Asdiwal? Critically discuss Lévi-Strauss’ theory of structuralism in the light of his study of mythologies.
  • 2021Explain the structural analysis of kinship as proposed by Levi – Strauss.
  • 2016How do the concepts of binary opposites and exchange figure in Levi-Strauss’ structural analysis of kinship?
Show 12 earlier questions (before 2013)

1981–2012 · 12 questions

  • 2009What are the major criticisms of the theory of ‘Structuralism’ as propounded by Claude Levi-Strauss ?
  • 1996Analyze how Raymond Firth’s concepts of structure, function, organization and process accommodate the study of both static and dynamic aspects of the social structure.
  • 1994Write a note on Structuralist approach to the study of myth.
  • 1993Write a note on Edmund R Leach.
  • 1991Discuss how Edmund Leach views social structure as a model.
  • 1989Examine critically the concept of Model and myth in  Levi-Strauss Anthropology.
  • 1988Discuss how Edmund Leach viewed ‘Social Structure’ as a model.
  • 1986Critically examine the contribution of Levi-Strauss in providing a theoretical ‘ frame for the structural analysis in society.
  • 1985Discuss in brief model and myth in Levi- Strauss anthropology.
  • 1984Discuss how structuralism derived from modern linguistics ?
  • 1982Discuss the structural study of myth by Levi-Strauss.
  • 1981Discuss how social structure is conceived as models, following Levi-Strauss and Leach.

Culture and personality (Benedict, Mead, Linton, Kardiner and Cora-du Bois) · notes: Culture and Personality

Asked since 2013 · 6

  • 2026Discuss, with appropriate examples, how basic personality types may lead towards building up of national character.
  • 2024Critically discuss the characteristics of the psychological types in the cultures of the American South-West as observed by Ruth Benedict.
  • 2023Discuss political and methodological aspects of national character studies. Elucidate the contemporary relevance of such studies.
  • 2020Discuss various anthropological approaches to the study of personality and culture.
  • 2018What do you understand by the National Character Study ? Illustrate the concept.
  • 2017Explain Ruth Benedict’s patterns of culture.
Show 14 earlier questions (before 2013)

1981–2012 · 14 questions

  • 2008Discuss the relationship between culture and personality.
  • 2004Critically discuss the contribution of Ruth Benedict to the study of culture,.
  • 2001Discuss the contributions of Margaret Mead and Ralph Linton to the analysis of the relationship between culture and personality.
  • 1999Discuss the contributions of Ralph Linton, Core-Du-Bois and Abraham Kardiner in the study of personality.
  • 1996Write a note on Culture and personality •.
  • 1994Discuss critically anthropological approaches in national character studies.
  • 1994Examine the relationship between culture and personality. Give suitable examples to illustrate your answer.
  • 1992Write a note on Model Personality.
  • 1992Define basic personality and discuss the different methods employed in the study of its structure.
  • 1988Define basic personality and discuss the different methods employed in the study of its structure.
  • 1986Write a note on Basic personality structure and model personality.
  • 1984Distinguish between : Basic personality and model personality.
  • 1982Discuss the limitations of basic personality constructs and model personality in the study of culture and personality.
  • 1981Discuss the value and limitations of national character studies in Anthropology.

Neo-evolutionism (Childe, White, Steward, Sahlins and Service) · notes: Neo-Evolutionism

Asked since 2013 · 4

  • 2026Critically discuss how culture determines human behaviour in the light of Leslie White’s theory.
  • 2022Discuss the approaches of Leslie White, Julian Steward and Marshall Sahlins in the light of cultural evolution.
  • 2018Write a note in 150 words on Gordon Childe’s Theory of Cultural Evolution.
  • 2017Critically examine the Stewardian view of neo-evolutionism.
Show 7 earlier questions (before 2013)

1989–2012 · 7 questions

  • 2009Explain the theory of Neo-evolutionism’
  • 2002Discuss the contribution of Julian Steward of Cultural Ecology.
  • 2000What do you understand by neoevolutionism ? Evaluate how Leslie A. White’s approach is helpful in understanding cultural evolution.
  • 1998What do you mean by cultural ecology ? Evaluate how Julian Steward’s particularistic approach is helpful in understanding multilineal evolution.
  • 1997Write a note on Neo-evolutionism.
  • 1993How do the approach of the 19th Century Evolutionists differ from those of the Neo-Evolutionists ? Discuss.
  • 1989Write an essay on neo-evolutionism and cultural ecology.

Cultural materialism (Harris) · notes: Cultural Materialism

Asked since 2013 · 1

  • 2019Write a note in 150 words on Cultural Materialism.
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)

2011–2012 · 1 question

  • 2011Write a note in 150 words on Cultural materialism.

Symbolic and interpretive theories (Turner, Schneider and Geertz) · notes: Symbolic and Cognitive Anthropology

Asked since 2013 · 9

  • 2026Compare Edmund Leach’s structuralism with interpretive anthropology of Clifford Geertz.
  • 2025Compare and contrast the symbolic approaches of Clifford Geertz and Victor Turner to understand culture.
  • 2023How did Clifford Geertz look at religion? Differentiate between anthropological and psychological approaches to the study of religion.
  • 2021Elucidate the concept of “thick description” of Clifford Geertz with a suitable example.
  • 2020Write notes on Victor Turner and Liminality in about 150 words.
  • 2019Examine critically the contributions of Victor Turner and Clifford Geertz in anthropology.
  • 2016According to Geertz, how does the cock-fight reveal aspects of Balinese culture?
  • 2015What made Geertz’s Interpretive Anthropology distinct from Turner’s symbolic anthropology? What does each of them mean by the terms ‘Symbol’ and ‘Symbolic’ ?
  • 2013Bring out the contribution of Turner and Geertz in symbolic and interpretive theories in Anthropology. (250 words).
Show 3 earlier questions (before 2013)

1999–2012 · 3 questions

  • 2007Write a note on Symbolism.
  • 2001Write a note on Symbolic Anthropology.
  • 1999Write a note on Symbolism.

Cognitive theories (Tyler, Conklin) · notes: Symbolic and Cognitive Anthropology

2002–2012 · 1 question

  • 2002Write a note on Cognitive Anthropology.

Postmodernism in anthropology · notes: Postmodernism in Anthropology

Asked since 2013 · 4

  • 2025How the theories of postmodernism are relevant in promoting social justice and empowerment of marginalised communities?
  • 2024Critically explain the notion of ‘deconstruction’ in the light of the postmodern works of Jacques Derrida.
  • 2023Critically examine Arjun Appadurai’s conceptualization of global cultural economy.
  • 2015Explain the basic features of ‘Postmodernism’ in Anthropology.
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)

2012–2012 · 1 question

  • 2012Write a note in 150 words on Post -modernism in Anthropology.

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Previous · Paper I · Unit 05

Religion

Evolutionary, psychological and functional approaches; sacred and profane; myth and ritual; animism to totemism; magic, religion and science; magico-religious functionaries.

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Next · Paper I · Unit 07

Culture, Language and Communication

Nature, origin and characteristics of language; verbal and non-verbal communication; social context of language use.

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Anthropology Optional

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