Philosophy Optional · Paper I · Indian Philosophy
Schools of Buddhism Notes · PYQs
Free notes and every UPSC previous year question for Schools of Buddhism, Unit 14 of Paper I, Section B: the official syllabus, 10 topic-wise notes in syllabus order, and all 60 questions from 1990 to 2026 grouped by sub-topic.
10
Free notes
60
Questions listed
28
Asked since 2013
1990–2026
Years covered
On this page
Syllabus Free notes Previous year questions All Philosophy units
Official UPSC syllabus
Schools of Buddhism: syllabus
The syllabus text for this unit in Paper I, Section B (Indian Philosophy) of Philosophy Optional. Every note and question on this page maps to it.
Pratityasamutpada; Ksanikavada; Nairatmyavada.
Paper I · Section B · Unit 14
Schools of Buddhism notes
Topic-wise notes for this unit in syllabus order, written for UPSC Mains in plain language, with diagrams and the previous year questions on each topic.
Free notes
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The Buddha’s Teaching: Anti-Speculative Attitude, the Ten Unanswered Questions, Four Noble Truths, Middle Path, Eightfold Path and Tilakkhaṇa
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Pratītyasamutpāda: Dependent Origination, the Twelve Links (Bhavacakra) and the Middle Way between Satkāryavāda and Asatkāryavāda
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Kṣaṇikavāda: From Impermanence to Momentariness — Arthakriyākāritva, the Argument from Existence, Causeless Destruction, Santāna and the Flame
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Momentariness on Trial: Memory, Recognition, Personal Identity, Karma and Responsibility — Kṛtapraṇāśa and Akṛtābhyupagama, Rival Critiques and Buddhist Replies
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Nairātmyavāda: No-Self, the Five Skandhas, Nāgasena’s Chariot, Pudgala- and Dharma-Nairātmya, and Comparisons with Upaniṣadic Ātman, Cārvāka and Hume
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Karma, Rebirth and Nirvāṇa without a Soul: Transmission without Transmigration, Kinds of Nirvāṇa, the Triratna and the Consistency Problem
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The Realist Schools and Buddhist Epistemology: Vaibhāṣika and Sautrāntika, Two Pramāṇas, Svalakṣaṇa and Sāmānyalakṣaṇa, Apoha, Pramāṇaphala and the Debates with Nyāya
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Yogācāra (Vijñānavāda): Consciousness-Only, Refutation of the External World, Sahopalambha, Ālayavijñāna, Three Natures, and Śaṅkara’s Critique
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Mādhyamika (Śūnyavāda): Nāgārjuna, Śūnyatā as Niḥsvabhāvatā, Catuṣkoṭi, Two Truths, the Critique of Causation, and the Charge of Nihilism
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The Four Schools of Buddhism Compared: From “Everything Is Real” to “Everything Is Void” — One Doctrine, Four Conclusions, with Western and Vedānta Parallels
Free practice
Previous year questions: Schools of Buddhism
All 60 questions UPSC has set from this unit between 1990 and 2026, grouped by sub-topic with the most-asked first, newest first within each. Questions from 2013 onwards are shown; earlier ones open on a tap.
How often UPSC asks each sub-topic
| Sub-topic | Questions | Since 2013 | Last asked |
|---|---|---|---|
| Pratityasamutpada | 11 | 3 | 2023 |
| Madhyamika · Sunyata | 10 | 3 | 2018 |
| Nairatmyavada | 9 | 5 | 2024 |
| Ksanikavada | 7 | 3 | 2020 |
| Nirvana | 6 | 2 | 2025 |
| Ksanikavada Objections | 4 | 4 | 2026 |
| Buddhist Epistemology | 3 | 2 | 2025 |
| Schools Compared | 3 | 3 | 2024 |
| Four Noble Truths | 3 | 0 | 2012 |
| Yogacara · Vijnanavada | 2 | 2 | 2019 |
| Madhyamika · Catuskoti | 2 | 1 | 2017 |
Pratityasamutpada
11 questions · 3 since 2013 · last asked 2023
Asked since 2013 · 3
2023“Ignorance of dependent origination is suffering while its knowledge is cessation of suffering.” Present an account of Buddhist soteriology in the light of the above statement. (20 marks)2016Does the ‘Doctrine of Dependent Origination’ reconcile the two extreme views law of causation, namely Satkaryavada and Asatkaryavada? Give reasons for answer. (20 marks)2015What is the role of Pratityasamutpada in explaining Dukha? Elucidate the means to overcome it. (15 marks)
Show 8 earlier questions (before 2013)
1990–2012 · 8 questions
2012Examine critically the statement that the doctrine of ‘ paticcasamuppada ’ was given only to explain the problem of sorrow and not to solve the problems of metaphysics. (15 marks)2011What is the importance of the Buddhist concept of ‘Nama-Rupa in the exposition of the Doctrine of Dependent Origination? (20 marks)2006Discuss Pratityasamutpada in Buddhism (20 marks)2002Buddhistic doctrine of Pratitya-samutpada (20 marks)2000The Buddhist arguments for the doctrine of dependent origination (20 marks)1995Pratitya Samutapada (20 marks)1994Discuss the nature of Pratitya Samutpada and throw light on its importance in Buddhism (60 marks)1990Discuss the Buddhist theory of Pratityasamutpada (60 marks)
Madhyamika · Sunyata
10 questions · 3 since 2013 · last asked 2018
Asked since 2013 · 3
2018How do the Madhyamika Buddhists apply the notion of Pratityasamutpada to establish their doctrine of Sunyata? Discuss. (10 marks)2014How does Nagarjuna explain the concept of Sunyata? (15 marks)2013Comment : ‘Accepting sunyavada makes one indifferent to the pursuit of dharma. Examine, in this context, Nagarjuna’s arguments for sunyavada. (12.5 marks)
Show 7 earlier questions (before 2013)
1996–2012 · 7 questions
2012Write a note on Nagarjuna’s contribution Madhyamica School of Buddhism (15 marks)2011Is Sunyavada a philosophical doctrine? Evaluate (15 marks)2008The Madhyamika philosophy tries to adopt the mean between extreme affirmation and extreme negation.” Comment (60 marks)2005State and discuss the Buddhist notion of Sunyata (60 marks)2001Nagarjuna’s defense of Sunya-vada (20 marks)1999Evaluate Nagarjuna’s arguments for Sunyavada (60 marks)1996Madhyamika notions of ParamarthaSatya and Samvrti Satya (20 marks)
Nairatmyavada
9 questions · 5 since 2013 · last asked 2024
Asked since 2013 · 5
2024Differentiate between the Carvaka’s refutation of self as a transcendental category and the Buddhist rejection of atma. (20 marks)2022Explain Buddhist concept of Trratna and their internal relation. Critically examine the consistency of Trratnas with the Buddhist concept of No-soul (Nairatmyavada). (15 marks)2021Distinguish between pudgala-nairatmyavada and dharma-nairatmyavada with reference to Buddhist Philosophy. (10 marks)2020How does Buddhism explain Self in terms of Pancaskandhas? What is Liberation for Buddhism if there is no Soul? (15 marks)2016How does ‘Kshanikavada’ strengthen the arguments for ‘Nairatmyavada’? Explain. (10 marks)
Show 4 earlier questions (before 2013)
1991–2010 · 4 questions
2010How does the Buddhist accept the possibility of rebirth in the absence of an eternal soul? Discuss (20 marks)2008An examination of Buddhist Nairatmyavada (20 marks)1999Examine arguments for the no-soul theory of the Buddhists (60 marks)1991Discuss critically the “Anatmavada of Buddhist Philosophy.” (60 marks)
Ksanikavada
7 questions · 3 since 2013 · last asked 2020
Asked since 2013 · 3
2020How is Kanikavada a logical derivative of Pratityasamutpada in Buddhism? Explain. (20 marks)2019What is Pratityasamutpada? How do the Buddhists apply this concept to prove that everything is momentary? (15 marks)2013Explain the Buddhists’ position of ‘Impermanence’ and show how the idea of Impermanence leads to the theory of momentariness of reality. (10 marks)
Show 4 earlier questions (before 2013)
1997–2004 · 4 questions
2004State and discuss the Buddhist notion of momentariness (60 marks)2003Ksanikavada of Buddhism (20 marks)2000Ksanikavada (20 marks)1997Examine the Buddhist arguments for the doctrine of momentariness (60 marks)
Nirvana
6 questions · 2 since 2013 · last asked 2025
Asked since 2013 · 2
2025Is Buddhist notion of Nirvana in consonance with their conception of Kshanikavada (momentariness) and Nairatmyavada (no-soul theory)? Critically discuss. (15 marks)2018Is it consistent for the Buddhists to admit the theory of Nairatmyavada and the doctrine of Nirvana simultaneously? Give reasons in favour of your answer. (15 marks)
Show 4 earlier questions (before 2013)
1993–2011 · 4 questions
2011Is the concept of Nirvana a logical necessity for the Buddhists? Give reasons for your answer (30 marks)2004Nature and kinds of Nirvana (20 marks)1997Bodhisattva (20 marks)1993The Mahayana Conception of Nirvana (20 marks)
Ksanikavada Objections
4 questions · 4 since 2013 · last asked 2026
Asked since 2013 · 4
2026How does the Buddhist theory of momentariness problematize the issue of human action and responsibility? Critically discuss. (10 marks)2022How compatible is Buddhist theory of momentariness with their theory of Karma? In this regard how do Buddhists respond to objections raised by their opponents? Critically discuss. (20 marks)2021If everything is momentary then how do the Buddhists explain the problem of memory and personal identity? Critically discuss. (15 marks)2017What are the arguments of the Buddhists to establish Kshanikavada ? Do they necessarily lead to krtanasha and akstabhyupagama ?, (15 marks)
Buddhist Epistemology
3 questions · 2 since 2013 · last asked 2025
Asked since 2013 · 2
2025Present an exposition of the debate between Naiyayikas and Buddhists with reference to the notion of Pramana and Pramanaphala. (10 marks)2018How do the Buddhists and the Nyaya philosophers explain our knowledge of ‘the absence of the jar on the table’? Answer in detail. (10 marks)
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)
2012 · 1 question
2012Explain the theory of illusion accepted by Buddhist. Is it consistent with their philosophy? Give reasons for your answer (15 marks)
Schools Compared
3 questions · 3 since 2013 · last asked 2024
Asked since 2013 · 3
2024How do the two schools of Buddhism arrive at two opposed conclusions, namely “everything is void” and “everything is real” from the same doctrine of Pratityasamutpada? Answer with arguments. (15 marks)2017How do Madhyamikas, Yogacaravadins and Sarvastivadins differ among themselves concerning the nature of reality? How do Sarvastivadins differ among themselves with regard to knowledgeability of reality? (20 marks)2014Explain the epistemological differences between Sautrantika and Vaibhashika schools of Buddhism. (10 marks)
Four Noble Truths
3 questions · 0 since 2013 · last asked 2012
2007–2012 · 3 questions
2012Do you agree with the view that in early Buddhism more importance was given to Four Noble Truths than to systematic metaphysics? Give reasons for your agreement or disagreement? (15 marks)2010Bring out the metaphysical implication of the second noble truth of the Buddhism (30 marks)2007Four Arya Satya (Noble Truths) according to Buddhism (20 marks)
Yogacara · Vijnanavada
2 questions · 2 since 2013 · last asked 2019
Asked since 2013 · 2
2019How do the Yogacara Buddhists deny the existence of the external world? Discuss. (10 marks)2015Alayavijnana (10 marks)
Madhyamika · Catuskoti
2 questions · 1 since 2013 · last asked 2017
Asked since 2013 · 1
2017Elucidate the role of catushkoti in explaining the nature of reality according to Madhyamika school of thought. (10 marks)
Show 1 earlier question (before 2013)
1993 · 1 question
1993Explain the central philosophy of Madhyemika and discuss their logic of chatushkoti (60 marks)
Year-wise question papers
All question papers Topic-wise PYQ bank (both papers) 2026 paper 2025 paper 2024 paper 2023 paper
Next · Paper I · Unit 15
Nyaya-Vaisesika
Theory of Categories; Theory of Appearance; Theory of Pramana; Self, Liberation; God; Proofs for the Existence of God; Theory of Causation; Atomistic Theory of Creation.
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