Anthropology Optional · Paper I · General Anthropology

Human Genetics, Race and Ecological Anthropology Notes · PYQs

Free notes and every UPSC previous year question for Human Genetics, Race and Ecological Anthropology (Anthropology Optional Paper I, Unit 09), arranged by syllabus sub-topic so you can read a topic and immediately see how UPSC has asked it. Syllabus: Methods of human genetics; Mendelian genetics; Hardy-Weinberg and polymorphism; chromosomal aberrations; race and racism; genetic markers; ecological and epidemiological anthropology.

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187

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79

Asked since 2013

1981–2026

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Official UPSC syllabus

Human Genetics, Race and Ecological Anthropology: syllabus

The syllabus text as UPSC notifies it for Paper I of Anthropology Optional. Every note and question on this page maps to these lines. Full Paper I and Paper II syllabus.

9.1 Human Genetics: Methods and Application: Methods for study of genetic principles in man-family study (pedigree analysis, twin study, foster child, co-twin method, cytogenetic method, chromosomal and karyo-type analysis), biochemical methods, immunological methods, D.N.A. technology and recombinant technologies.

9.2 Mendelian genetics in man-family study, single factor, multifactor, lethal, sub-lethal and polygenic inheritance in man.

9.3 Concept of genetic polymorphism and selection, Mendelian population, Hardy-Weinberg law; causes and changes which bring down frequency-mutation, isolation, migration, selection, inbreeding and genetic drift. Consanguineous and non-consanguineous mating, genetic load, genetic effect of consanguineous and cousin marriages.

9.4 Chromosomes and chromosomal aberrations in man, methodology.
(a) Numerical and structural aberrations (disorders).
(b) Sex chromosomal aberration- Klinefelter (XXY), Turner (XO), Super female (XXX), intersex and other syndromic disorders.
(c) Autosomal aberrations- Down syndrome, Patau, Edward and Cri-du-chat syndromes.
(d) Genetic imprints in human disease, genetic screening, genetic counseling, human DNA profiling, gene mapping and genome study.

9.5 Race and racism, biological basis of morphological variation of non-metric and characters. Racial criteria, racial traits in relation to heredity and environment; biological basis of racial classification, racial differentiation and race crossing in man.

9.6 Age, sex and population variation as genetic marker: ABO, Rh blood groups, HLA Hp, transferring, Gm, blood enzymes. Physiological characteristics-Hb level, body fat, pulse rate, respiratory functions and sensory perceptions in different cultural and socio-ecomomic groups.

9.7 Concepts and methods of Ecological Anthropology: Bio-cultural Adaptations—Genetic and Nongenetic factors. Man’s physiological responses to environmental stresses: hot desert, cold, high altitude climate.

9.8 Epidemiological Anthropology: Health and disease. Infectious and non-infectious diseases, Nutritional deficiency related diseases.

Free practice

Previous year questions: Human Genetics, Race and Ecological Anthropology

All 187 questions UPSC has set from this unit between 1981 and 2026, grouped by syllabus sub-topic, newest first. Questions from 2013 onwards (the current pattern) are shown in full; earlier ones open on a tap.

How often UPSC asks each sub-topic

Sub-topicQuestionsSince 2013Last asked
9.1 Human genetics: methods and application1772026
9.2 Mendelian genetics in man1442025
9.3 Genetic polymorphism, Hardy-Weinberg law and consanguinity38132026
9.4 Chromosomes and chromosomal aberrations30172026
9.5 Race and racism2982023
9.6 Age, sex and population variation as genetic markers1152024
9.7 Ecological anthropology25122025
9.8 Epidemiological anthropology23132026

9.1 Human genetics: methods and application

17 questions · 7 since 2013 · last asked 2026
Read the notes: Human Genetics Methods

Asked since 2013 · 7

  • 2026How would you find out that a particular disease/disorder is inherited and, if so, in which manner? Elaborate with suitable examples.
  • 2025Differentiate between pedigree and genealogical analyses. Discuss the history and application of these methods in anthropological studies.
  • 2025What are genetic markers? Discuss their applications in understanding population variation, disease association and forensics.
  • 2024Write notes on: Heritability and its estimation.
  • 2022Write notes on: Pedigree analysis in genetic counselling.
  • 2017Briefly describe the various methods used in the genetic study of man.
  • 2013Write a note in 150 words on Twin method in human genetics.
Show 10 earlier questions (before 2013)

1981–2012 · 10 questions

  • 2007Write a note on Pedigree Analysis.
  • 2001Write a note on Recombinant DNA technology.
  • 2000What do you understand by recombinant DNA technology ? Discuss its application and limitations in improving human health.
  • 1999Discuss the role of twins in naturenurture problems and illustrate your answer with suitable examples.
  • 1998Define twins. Describe the method of diagnosis of twins. In what ways are twins useful in the study of human genetics.
  • 1997Discuss the recent developments in genetic techniques and comment upon their potential social significance.
  • 1996Why are gender studies gaining importance these days ? Assess the contribution of anthropology to gender studies.
  • 1995Discuss the genetical and clinical aspects of the anomalies of sex chromosomes in man with special reference to the associated mosaic constitutions.
  • 1988Write a note on Heredity and environment.
  • 1981“Genetic similarities far outweigh the racial differences among men.” Discuss.

9.2 Mendelian genetics in man

14 questions · 4 since 2013 · last asked 2025
Read the notes: Mendelian Genetics in Man

Asked since 2013 · 4

  • 2025Write notes on: Mendelian and non-Mendelian traits.
  • 2024What is a multifactorial trait? Illustrate your answer with suitable human examples.
  • 2023Write notes on: Polygenic Inheritance.
  • 2016Critically discuss the Mendelian principles and their application to human populations.
Show 10 earlier questions (before 2013)

1982–2012 · 10 questions

  • 2012What are lethal and sub-lethal genes ?Explain.
  • 2011Discuss monogenic and polygenic inheritance in man, citing suitable examples.
  • 1993What are the contributions of Gregor Mendel to the field of Genetics ? Discuss with suitable examples how Mendel’s laws of inheritance are applicable to Man?
  • 1992What are Mendel’s laws of inheritance ? Describe the recent advances in human genetics.
  • 1991Write a note on Mendelism.
  • 1990Describe Mendel’s laws of Inheritance. What are the recent advances in human genetics and human cytogenetics ?
  • 1989Write a note on Law of Heredity as Propounded by Mendel.
  • 1987Discuss how the laws of heredity propounded by Mendel can be understood in the context of meiotic cell division and their application on Man.
  • 1986Discuss the laws of inheritance propounded by Mendel on the basis of his classic experiments. Explain how these laws are applied in the study of human genetics.
  • 1982Mendelian principle are equally applicable to animal populations as well as to human populations. Discuss.

9.3 Genetic polymorphism, Hardy-Weinberg law and consanguinity

38 questions · 13 since 2013 · last asked 2026
Read the notes: Hardy–Weinberg Law and Genetic Polymorphism

Asked since 2013 · 13

  • 2026Write notes on: Genetic polymorphism and natural selection.
  • 2025What are genetic markers? Discuss their applications in understanding population variation, disease association and forensics.
  • 2023What assumptions must be met for a population to be in genetic equilibrium? Explain the importance of genetic equilibrium.
  • 2022Write notes on: Balanced and transient genetic polymorphism.
  • 2022Discuss the role of evolutionary forces in creating human diversity.
  • 2020Write notes on the Genetic drift in about 150 words.
  • 2020How do marriage rules impact the gene pool of populations?
  • 2019Differentiate between transient and balanced genetic polymorphism. Illustrate your answer with suitable examples from human populations.
  • 2017Write a note in 150 words on Hardy-Weinberg Law.
  • 2015Define genetic polymorphism. Give details of its types with suitable examples.
  • 2015What do you understand by Immunogenetics? Explain with suitable examples.
  • 2014Discuss the factors affecting gene frequencies among human populations.
  • 2013What do you understand by ‘Genetic Load’ in a population? How is it measured and what are the important factors that can influence it? (250 words).
Show 25 earlier questions (before 2013)

1981–2012 · 25 questions

  • 2012Write a note in 150 words on How ‘natural selection’ acts on variation?
  • 2012What are the genetic effects of consanguinity? Give examples.
  • 2011Write a note in 150 words on Conditions necessary for the operation of Hardy. Weinberg Law.
  • 2011Write a note in 150 words on Genetic polymorphism.
  • 2010What is Balanced Genetic Polymorphism? How is it maintained in a population?
  • 2009Write a note on Natural selection in humans.
  • 2009Write a note on Anthropological relevance of population genetics.
  • 2009What is ‘genetic load’ & what factors influence it ?
  • 2008Write a note on Inbreeding.
  • 2008What do you understand by Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? Discuss the factors that produce and redistribute variations.
  • 2006Write a note on Genetic Polymorphism.
  • 2005Write a note on Problems of Inbreeding.
  • 2003Write a note on Genetic Polymorphism and Selection.
  • 2003Describe in brief the major causes of change in gene frequency of a population.
  • 2000Write a note on Genetic Adaptation.
  • 1998Write a note on Mutation.
  • 1998Define Hardy-Weinberg law and state briefly how Hardy-Weinberg law is applicable in population human genetics ?
  • 1997Discuss the concept of ‘Mendelian population’ and its application in the study of anthropo-genetic variations in India.
  • 1996Discuss the concepts of balanced polymorphism and relaxed selection with special reference to Malaria dependent polymorphisms in man.
  • 1993Write a note on Inbreeding and crossbreeding.
  • 1988Write a note on Inbreeding and hybridization.
  • 1987Is inbreeding different from consanguinity? Give an account of inbreeding studies in India and comment on their social relevance.
  • 1986What are the various forms of preferential mating? Explain with Indian examples.
  • 1985Discuss the role of genetic drift, mutation and migration as the causes of variation.
  • 1981‘Inbreeding is not necessarily deleterious in effect.’ Comment (200 words).

9.4 Chromosomes and chromosomal aberrations

30 questions · 17 since 2013 · last asked 2026
Read the notes: Chromosomal Aberrations

Asked since 2013 · 17

  • 2026Numerical chromosomal aberrations can be due to abnormalities in autosomes as well as sex chromosomes. Elaborate in terms of the effects these have on human body, giving suitable examples.
  • 2025‘Genome-wide Disease Association Studies (GWAS) advanced our understanding of health and disease.’ Discuss.
  • 2024What is meant by karyotype? How does its analysis help in diagnosis of the chromosomal aberrations in man?
  • 2024What is genetic counselling? Briefly discuss various steps involved in it.
  • 2023Describe the causes of structural abnormalities of chromosomes with suitable examples.
  • 2023Describe the practical applications of DNA technology in the current scenario.
  • 2022Write notes on: Genetic imprinting in human diseases.
  • 2021“Chromosomal aberrations can play havoc with the human body and mind.” Explain with suitable examples.
  • 2020How may numerical aberrations in sex chromosomes lead to genetic disorders ?
  • 2020What are the applications of human genomic research in human welfare?
  • 2018Write a note in 150 words on Categorize Genes that influence Human Survival.
  • 2018Describe the mechanisms for structural anomalies of autosomes with diagrams.
  • 2016Explain the significance of screening and counselling for genetic disorders.
  • 2015Write a note in 150 words on Down’s Syndrome.
  • 2015Discuss chromosomal aberrations in man illustrating with examples.
  • 2014Write a note in 150 words on Genetic Counselling.
  • 2014Describe Turner and Klinefelter Syndromes in humans.
Show 13 earlier questions (before 2013)

1987–2012 · 13 questions

  • 2012Write a note in 150 words on Genetic Counselling.
  • 2012Discuss the chromosomal aberrations and manifestations of Klinefelter and Turner syndromes.
  • 2010Write a note in 150 words on Oncogenes.
  • 2010Chromosomal deletions and numerical fluctuations may lead to gross abnormalities in man. Discuss with the help of suitable examples.
  • 2007Write a note on Genome Study.
  • 2007Discuss different types of sex chromosomal aberrations.
  • 2006What is Genetic Counselling? Discuss its relevance in the present day context.
  • 2003Write a note on Klinefelter syndrome.
  • 2002Write a note on Genetic Counselling.
  • 2001Discuss the relevance of human DNA Profiling and Gene Mapping in the prevention and cure of diseases.
  • 1998Write a note on Genetic counselling.
  • 1995Write a note on Gene therapy.
  • 1987Write a note on Tourodontism.

9.5 Race and racism

29 questions · 8 since 2013 · last asked 2023
Read the notes: Race and Racism

Asked since 2013 · 8

  • 2023Write notes on: Race and Ethnicity.
  • 2021Write notes on : Is race a valid and biologically meaningful concept ?(in about 150 words).
  • 2020Write notes on the Racism and Eugenics in about 150 words.
  • 2019With reference to the somatoscopic and morphometric characteristics commonly used for racial classification, make critical comments as to whether ‘Race’ is a valid concept.
  • 2018Write a note in 150 words on Race is a Myth. Justify its Present Day Relevance.
  • 2017Write a note in 150 words on Concept of race.
  • 2016Explain the role of heredity and environment in the formation of races.
  • 2013Differentiate between Race and Racism. What are three races of the world ? Give important biological criteria used frequently for such a classification. (250 words)
Show 21 earlier questions (before 2013)

1982–2012 · 21 questions

  • 2012Discuss race crossing in humans with suitable examples.
  • 2010Is Race a valid concept ? Critically assess the relevance of racial classification in the Indian context.
  • 2006Write a note on Racial Criteria.
  • 2004Write a note on Race and Racism.
  • 1999Write a note on Racial criteria.
  • 1998What is ‘race’ ? Enumerate and discuss the factors responsible for the formation of races.
  • 1996Write a note on Controversies of race.
  • 1994Discuss the role of heredity and environment in formation of race.
  • 1993Write a note on Racial types in India.
  • 1992Discuss the main processes involved in the formation of races.
  • 1991What is race ? Describe the criteria employed for the classification of human races:.
  • 1990How are the races formed ? Describe the physical characteristics and distribution of different racial types in India ?
  • 1989Examine critically the basis of racial classification in the light of modern development in Physical Anthropology.
  • 1988Define race as a biological concept and discuss the various criteria of racial classification.
  • 1987Write a note on Racism.
  • 1985Write a note on Factors involved in race formation in man.
  • 1984Discuss the role of environment and heredity in the formation of race.
  • 1984Define race and describe its relevance to modern anthropological studies.
  • 1983Do you find a serological basis: of racial classification? Discuss.
  • 1982Discuss the role of environment and heredity in formation of races.
  • 1982Racial superiority is not based on science. Substantiate.

9.6 Age, sex and population variation as genetic markers

11 questions · 5 since 2013 · last asked 2024
Read the notes: Genetic Markers

Asked since 2013 · 5

  • 2024Write notes on: Hemoglobin in health and disease.
  • 2024Describe the genetics and inheritance patterns of the ABO and Rh blood groups in man.
  • 2022What do you understand by blood group systems? How is HLA system different from those based on red cell antigens?
  • 2016Write a note in 150 words on Rh-Blood Group.
  • 2013What are genetic markers and what is their usefulness? Why are blood groups considered as good genetic markers? Illustrate with examples. (250 words).
Show 6 earlier questions (before 2013)

2000–2012 · 6 questions

  • 2012Discuss the role of ABO blood group system in resolving cases of disputed paternity.
  • 2012Give a comparative account of variations in hemoglobin level and respiratory functions among the populations living under different environmental stresses.
  • 2011Write a note in 150 words on Respiratory functions.
  • 2009Write a note on Genetics of HLA and organ transplantation.
  • 2008Write a note on ABO and Rh blood group distribution in human populations.
  • 2000Evaluate genetic heterogeneity of ABO, Rh and Gm antigens. Discuss how the principle human groups can be distinguished on the basis of their blood antigen characteristic.

9.7 Ecological anthropology

25 questions · 12 since 2013 · last asked 2025
Read the notes: Ecological Anthropology

Asked since 2013 · 12

  • 2025How political economy is integrated with ecological and adaptability perspectives in bio-cultural anthropology?
  • 2021What is acclimatization? Discuss adaptive responses to high altitude and cold climate.
  • 2020Describe the biocultural responses to extreme climatic events.
  • 2019“Human adaptations are always biocultural in nature.” Discuss with reference to human adaptation to high altitude climate.
  • 2018Distinguish between adaptation, adaptability and acclimatization with examples.
  • 2017Discuss the responses and acclimatization to high altitude stresses.
  • 2016Discuss the genetic and non-genetic factors in the bio-cultural adaptations of human beings to different environments.
  • 2015Critically examine the physiological responses and acclimatization to cold climate in Man.
  • 2014Write a note in 150 words on Ecological Anthropology.
  • 2014What are the stresses at high altitudes? How do better cardio-respiratory functions help the native highlanders in combating low environmental pressure.
  • 2013Justify “Though human growth is under tight genetic control but it is influenced by various environmental factors.” (250 words).
  • 2013Elaborate upon major human adaptations to heat and cold. (250 words).
Show 13 earlier questions (before 2013)

1983–2012 · 13 questions

  • 2012How does improved aerobic fitness increase exercise tolerance in warm humid climates ? Give suitable examples in support of your answer.
  • 2011Native highlanders are well adapted to the high altitude environment. Discuss.
  • 2008Define adaptability. What biocultural adjustments do humans show in coping up with stress at high altitude ?
  • 2007Examine adaptive significance of Human Variations in Tropical and Arctic climatic zones.
  • 2002Write a note on Biological adaptation.
  • 2001Write a note on Ecological Anthropology.
  • 2000Define ecosystem. Explain with examples, how biocultural ad~ptive qualities have helped human survival in stressful eco-conditions.
  • 1999Discuss the mechanism by which the human body adapts to altitudinal changes and other geographical stresses.
  • 1997Write a note on Ecological Anthropology.
  • 1997How are body size and shape related to climatic adaptation ? Discuss the ecological rules with examples from human situations.
  • 1995Define adaptability. Compare the adaptive response in man to stresses at high altitudes and in a hot desert environment.
  • 1995What is cultural ecology ? Discuss how man adapts himself to different environments, giving suitable examples.
  • 1983Stature is susceptible to environmental influences. Substantiate.

9.8 Epidemiological anthropology

23 questions · 13 since 2013 · last asked 2026
Read the notes: Epidemiological Anthropology

Asked since 2013 · 13

  • 2026Write notes on: Health as a cultural construct.
  • 2025How anthropologists assess the nutritional status of a community? Discuss the significance of intersectionality of ecology, culture, and social inequality in the study of nutritional anthropology.
  • 2025Write notes on: Foetal origin of adult diseases and contribution of David Barker.
  • 2024Critically comment on the lifestyle diseases and their impact on human health.
  • 2023Elucidate the different forms of malnutrition. Describe protein-calorie malnutrition with suitable examples.
  • 2022What is meant by health? Is the burden of lifestyle diseases on the rise? Justify your answer with suitable examples.
  • 2020Critically examine the demographic and epidemiological consequences with rise in food production and sedentism.
  • 2020Describe the impact of infectious diseases on indigenous populations.
  • 2018Narrate evolution of disease and major causes of ill health in human populations.
  • 2016Describe the scope of Epidemiological Anthropology in the study of infectious and non-infectious diseases.
  • 2014Discuss the role of anthropology in the understanding of health and disease. What specific understanding is available with respect to infectious and non-infectious diseases ?
  • 2014Write a note in 150 words on Epidemiological Anthropology.
  • 2013What is meant by epidemiological transition? Elaborate upon its causes and consequences highlighting major health problems of our adult population today. (250 words).
Show 10 earlier questions (before 2013)

1981–2012 · 10 questions

  • 2012Write a note in 150 words on Epidemiological anthropology.
  • 2012Briefly discuss the important causes for the variations in occurrence and intensity of parasitic diseases among different populations.
  • 2010Write a note in 150 words on Social I concept of disease.
  • 2009Write a note on non-communicable diseases.
  • 2005Write a note on Drug Abuse.
  • 2004Write a note on Impact of smoking on Health.
  • 2000Write a note on Malnutrition.
  • 1994Write a note on Malnutrition.
  • 1993Write a note on Effects of malnutrition.
  • 1981“Nutrition affects several physical features. ” Exemplify. (200 words).

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Research Methods in Anthropology

Fieldwork tradition; technique, method and methodology; tools of data collection; analysis, interpretation and presentation of data.

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Human Growth and Development

Stages of growth; factors affecting growth and development; ageing and senescence; physique and somatotypes; methods of growth study.

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Anthropology Optional

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