Pandyas: Economy, Society, Education and Literature
The Second Pandyan Empire, established after the Pandyas’ decisive defeat of the Cholas in the early 13th century, is richly documented not only through inscriptions but also through the eyewitness accounts of foreign travellers such as Marco Polo and Wassaf. For UPSC History Optional aspirants, this period offers valuable insight into Pandya social structure — including the position of the Brahmins, Vellalas, and Nagarathars, and the condition of women — alongside its economy, trade (including its celebrated maritime links with China), coinage, education, literature, and religious life, which encompassed Saivism, Vaishnavism, Jainism, Buddhism, and a broadly tolerant religious policy. This article examines Pandya society, the observations of Marco Polo, education and literature, the economic condition, trade, coinage, and religious condition under the Second Pandyan Empire.
Historical Background and Sources
- In the early 13th century CE, the Pandyas under Maravarman Sundara Pandya decisively defeated the Chola ruler and re-established Pandyan rule, continuing to reign until 1312 CE; this phase of Pandyan rule is known as the Second Pandyan Empire.
- A variety of sources — literary, epigraphic, and foreign accounts — help us understand the condition of the people.
- Marco Polo visited the Pandya country in 1293, during the reign of Maravarman Kulasekara I (1268–1308); Wassaf, the Muhammadan historian, also mentions the Pandyan Empire.
Social Condition
- The caste system was deeply rooted in society, with numerous castes and sub-castes; there was also religious strife in the country.
The Brahmins
- The Brahmins held a high position in society; they were given grants and donations, and certain villages were also granted to them for settlement by the Pandyan rulers.
- Maravarman Kulasekara I founded many Brahmin settlements, called Sundarapandya Chaturvedimangalams; Brahmins were appointed to higher government positions such as ministers and army commanders.
The Vellalas
- The Vellala community occupied an important place in society and was prominent in trade; there were occasions when the Vellalas and the Brahmins clashed, and there is a reference to Vellalas who failed in their duties to Brahmins being punished by other communities.
- The Vellalas were called Bhoomi Puthirar and Nattu Makkal; they too held high positions in government, and their organisation was called the Chitirameli Perianattar.
Nagarathars
- The Nagarathar community settled in the Pandyan country, and it is believed they migrated from the Chola country; they were also called Nattukkottai Chetties.
- They were traders and deeply religious, allotting a portion of their income to religious causes.
Others
- Besides the Brahmins, the Vellalas, and the Nagarathars, many other communities lived in the Pandyan Empire.
- The Parayas conveyed royal messages to the people. Untouchability was found in society, and it was a curse upon society.
Position of Women
- The condition of women cannot be said to have improved; their position lagged behind, they were not given equal property rights, and celibacy was expected only of women.
- Women were permitted to receive higher education, and many were learned scholars who composed poems; some dedicated themselves to temples and were known as Devaradiyars.
Marriage
- Marriage was considered a significant institution in society; during the marriage ceremony, the bride and bridegroom circled the fire and placed their feet upon the Ammi (grinding stone).
- These were customary practices; marriages were arranged by the parents. Polygamy was found among the rich, and kings married many women. The practice of Sati was also found in society.
Beliefs and Social Attitudes of the Tamils as Observed by Marco Polo
- Marco Polo, the “prince of medieval travellers,” spent several months in South India; he writes that the king to whom the city of Kayal belonged possessed vast treasures and wore upon his person a great store of rich jewels.
- He continues: “He maintains great state and administers his kingdom with great equity, and extends great favour to merchants and foreigners, so that they are very glad to visit his city… It is at this city that all the ships touch that come from the west, as from Hormos and from Kis and from Aden, and all Arabia, laden with horses and with other things for sale. And this brings a great concourse of people from the country round about, and so there is great business done in this city of Cail.”
- He also mentions the fame of the Pandya country for producing pearls since early times, giving a substantially correct account of the pearl fisheries and noting that the king derived great revenue from them.
- He mentions the practice of Sati, and refers to the practice of allowing a criminal condemned to death to sacrifice himself to a god of his choice; he also mentions the practice of smearing houses all over with cow dung.
- He also observes that every single thing the people do is done with reference to astrology and on the advice of diviners skilled in sorcery, magic, geomancy, and similar arts; some of them were also well acquainted with astrology.
- He notices the widespread use of betel leaves with camphor and other aromatic spices mixed with quicklime, called Tambulam.
Education and Literature
- Educational institutions were called Ghatika, Vidyasthana, and Salai; the donations and grants given by the Pandyas demonstrated their patronage of education, and mutts also imparted education.
- The Saiva mutts worked for the growth of education at Madurai, Tirunelveli, Sakkottai, and Aruviyur, while the Vaishnava mutts provided educational service at Alagarkoil and Thirukurungudi.
- There were libraries in some temples, and there appears to have been military education as well; thus, the Pandyas contributed to the growth of education through their patronage.
Literature
- A good number of literary works were produced during the reign of the Pandyas: Nambi wrote the Thiruvilayadal Puranam, and the poet Adi Devan composed the Kangeyan Pillai Tamil.
- The Sivagnana Siddhiyar was written by Arunandi Sivachariar, and Senavarayar wrote a commentary on the Tolkappiyam.
- It was during this period that Parimelalagar wrote his commentary on the Tirukkural, and the Thanjai Vanan Kovai was written by Poyyamoli. Tamil literature reached new heights of excellence through the works of the religious saints of this period.
- The Unmai Vilakkam (“Explanation of the Truth”) of Manavasagam Kadanthar of Tiruvadi is the simplest of the manuals on the doctrine, true to the essence of the Agamas.
- Umapathi Sivacharya was the author of the remaining eight of the fourteen Saiva Siddhanta sastras, works that critique other creeds while dealing with the minute differences within the fold of Saivism itself.
- Some of the other great authors of the period were Manavala Perumal, Vedanta Deshikar, and Manavala Mamunigal. The Tamil language flourished, and Sanskrit was also patronised by the rulers.
Economic Condition
- Economic conditions improved during the reign of the Pandyas. The brisk trade of the period is described in the accounts of Marco Polo and Wassaf, both referring to Kayalpatinam, where goods were imported and exported.
Agriculture
- Agriculture was given due importance by the Pandyas; the rivers Vaigai and Tamiraparani fertilised the Pandyan country.
- Many dry lands were brought under cultivation, and through various forms of land tenure, peasants who had no land of their own were able to cultivate crops. Devadana lands belonged to temples, and land tax was the major source of revenue for the country.
- The government provided irrigation facilities, and tanks and channels were dug to promote agricultural production. The important tanks were:
- Vasudeva Grand Canal, Sri Vallabha Canal, and Prakrama Pandyan Ground Canal.
- A variyam known as the Eri Variyam looked after the maintenance of the tanks.
Industry
- Cotton cloths of fine quality were produced in Madurai; the Kaikolas engaged in weaving, and oil-crushing remained a hereditary industry.
- Salt was produced in the coastal areas, and pearl fishing was prominent at Korkai and Tuticorin; the Paradavas engaged in fishing.
- Crops such as cotton and sugarcane supported the production of cloth and sugar; sugar was made from the Palmyra palm. Besides these, other industries included pottery, carpentry, and blacksmithing.
Trade
Internal Trade
- Internal trade flourished in the country; the Vaishyas, the trading community, were keenly engaged in commerce.
- Traders dealt in cloth, groceries, salt, oil, and pearls, and there were both retail and wholesale merchants.
- Cotton and silk garments, pepper and spices, and pearls were the principal commercial goods; a chamber of commerce existed to protect and promote trade.
Foreign Trade
- Maritime trade flourished under the Pandyas, with trade contacts extending to countries such as China, Arabia, Turkey, Persia, and Europe.
- Arabian horses were imported into the country, and large sums were paid to Arab traders for their purchase; Kayalpatinam remained an important port.
- The Pandya ruler Kulasekara Pandyan sent an envoy under Jamaluddin, with presents, to the Chinese ruler in 1280, and a second Pandyan envoy went to China in 1282; these presents included precious pearls, fine cloths, and ornaments.
- The Chinese ruler was so pleased that he too sent his envoy to the Pandyan country. The Pandyas thus enjoyed good relations with China, marked by both cultural contacts and maritime activity.
Coins
- Gold was the medium of exchange; Kalanju and Kanam were gold coins.
- Pandyan coins have been discovered in many places, and Korkai was the minting place of the Pandyas.
Religious Condition
- The Pandyas contributed greatly to religion through the patronage they extended to religious institutions and temple building (art and architecture).
Saivism
- Saivism spread in the country to a considerable extent; the Nayanmars, the saints of Saivism, rendered tremendous service that helped the growth not only of religion but also of Tamil literature. Besides this, the role of the mutts in spreading religion and education was remarkable.
- Ninra Seer Nedumaran, Kulachiraiyar, and Mangayarkarasi were among the important Nayanmars to be remembered; the saints spread Saivism through the Saiva mutts, which also served as centres of education.
Vaishnavism
- Vaishnavism was spreading in the country as a result of the works of the Vaishnava saints, and various Vaishnava mutts were established during this period.
- The head of a mutt was called the Jeeyar; the important mutts were the Ahobila Mutt and the Vanamalai Mutt.
- These mutts spread not only Vaishnavism but also the Bhakti cult. The Valangai and Idangai castes were also present, with separate temples of their own.
- It is worth noting that Mathurakavi, Nammalwar, Periyalwar, and Andal were all born in the Pandya country.
The Jainism and the Buddhism
- Jainism and Buddhism had already spread in the Tamil country; during the period of the Second Pandyan Empire, however, both lost their influence.
- The Bhakti movement, along with rulers such as Koon Pandyan and his descendants, took stern measures against Jainism and Buddhism.
Other Religions
- Islam and Christianity also spread in the country; the untouchability and rigidity of the caste system prevailing at the time led some people to embrace Islam and Christianity.
Religious Toleration
- Sundarapandya II, though he endowed the greatest Saiva temple — Chidambaram — and the greatest Vaishnava temple — Srirangam — very liberally, is also said to have liberally endowed some Jaina pallis (temples).
- Generally, the Pandyas were religiously tolerant.
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