Cholas: Economy, Society, Education and Literature
The Chola economy and society reveal a highly organised and complex civilisation, marked by a rigid caste hierarchy, an active agrarian and trading economy, and one of the richest literary traditions in South Indian history. For UPSC History Optional aspirants, this topic offers valuable material on Chola social institutions such as the Valangai–Idangai divisions and the position of women, the agrarian and taxation systems that sustained the Chola state, its flourishing internal and maritime trade, and the remarkable body of Tamil devotional and secular literature — spanning Saivite, Vaishnavite, Jain, Buddhist, and grammatical works — produced under Chola patronage. This article examines Chola social conditions, economic life, trade and coinage, and literature in turn.
Social Condition
- Social conditions underwent significant change during the reign of the Cholas: the caste system became so rigid that clear social differences emerged between communities, and society came to be organised on the basis of caste.
- However, some scholars hold the view that there was cooperation among the various castes and sub-castes in social and religious life.
Caste System
- Castes existed within society, and Varnashrama Dharma was observed; the Brahmins continued to enjoy influence, privilege, and dominance in society.
- They lived in Agraharams and Chaturvedimangalams, exclusively Brahmin villages, and were provided with tax-free lands; learned in the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas, they even held high positions such as Rajguru in government.
- They narrated the Ramayana and the Mahabharata to the public at the mandapas. People donated lands as Iraiyili — Vedhavirudhi, Pattaviruthi, and Puranaviruthi — as confirmed by inscriptions.
- The Chetties, a business community, formed an important section of society.
- Other communities included the Vellalas, Idayars, Kaikolars, Rathakaras, Paraiyas, and others.
Valangai and Idangai
- Two broad social classes existed — the Idangai (left-hand) and Valangai (right-hand) — each comprising 98 castes.
- The Valangai class consisted of the wealthy and those who enjoyed government privileges, while the Idangai consisted of workers who had no such privileges, though they too paid taxes such as land tax and house tax.
- Both Valangai and Idangai had separate temples for worship.
- K.A.N. Sastri writes: “The ninety eight sub-sects of the Idangai are again mentioned in a later inscription from Aduturai, which records the hardships to which these sub-sects were exposed at the hands of the Vanniya tenants and the Brahmana and Vellala landlords, backed by government officials.”
- Nilakanda Sastri writes: “The origin of this division is unknown. Legend ascribes it to the design of Karikala Chola and also, with more plausibility, to a famous occasion when the two sections of the population laid their disputes before a Chola king, one party standing on the right hand side of the monarch, the other taking a position on the left. Several regiments of the army were counted as of the Valangai in the reign of Rajaraja I. During the rule of Kulotunga I a clash between the Right and Left hand castes resulted in the burning of the village (Rajamahendra Chaturvedi mangalam). Idangai people worshipped the Goddess Parvathi and Kali and Valangai people worshipped Lord Siva and Tirumal.”
Position of Women
- Women were respected and enjoyed a privileged position in society; they had property rights, and inscriptions refer to women of the upper classes owning property in their own right and disposing of it as they chose.
- They were engaged in minor occupations; it cannot be said that their position had improved much.
- Social freedom and prestige belonged to accomplished dancing girls of the higher grade, who became famous for their philanthropic works; there were also learned women.
- Devadasis were provided grants and donations that protected them economically, and there are references to some being married and leading married lives.
- Members of the royal family, namely Sembiyan Mahadevi, Vanavan Madevi, and Kundavai, were devout and patronised temple building.
Marriage
- Monogamy was common in society, though polygamy was found among the rich and the kings; marriages were held only during the daytime.
- Dowry was neither customary nor compulsory, but it was given to bridegrooms in the form of land, a house, or cash; this was known as Sridhanam or Seethanam.
- Social organisation was based on blood relations, professions, religious belief, and environment.
Sati
- Sati is mentioned in the inscriptions, though since such references are few, it is understood that it can hardly be regarded as a common practice in the Tamil country under the Cholas.
- There were also women who continued to live after their husbands’ deaths — Sembiyan Mahadevi is one example, and she rendered remarkable service to religion; some women conducted festivals at Shiva temples on behalf of their deceased husbands.
Slave System
- Slavery was found in society, and many kinds of slaves existed; records mention instances of free men becoming slaves in order to escape starvation, and some women were dedicated to temples.
- Generally, slavery in Tamil Nadu was not like the slave system that prevailed in Western countries; slaves in Tamil Nadu were treated better than slaves in the West.
Food and Dress
- Rice was the staple food; millet, grains, pulses, gingili (sesame), and green gram were also used. Curd rice, milk rice, and tamarind rice formed the diet of the people, and ghee was used; Jain saints ate rice, roots, and bananas.
- The Tamils wore simple dress, made of cotton and silk. Men wore two garments — a dhoti and a turban — while women wore upper and lower garments, the upper garment being known as the Kachchai; women folded the saree and inserted the frills on the left side of the hip. Tailoring was known to them.
- Mirrors and cosmetics were used, and people used umbrellas; they wore a variety of flowers and applied kumkum on the forehead.
- Ornaments worn by women included bangles, necklaces, armlets, waist belts, and anklets.
Amusements
- The pastime activities of the people during the Chola period included cock-fighting, horse racing, elephant racing, hunting, wrestling, dance, music, and drama.
Beliefs
- People held various blind beliefs and superstitions — they believed in ghosts, and believed that margosa (neem) leaves would drive ghosts away; they also made predictions based on the sounds made by birds.
Economic Condition
Agriculture and Industry
- Agriculture was the pivot of the economy and the major occupation of the people; the independent peasant proprietor was, then as now, the backbone of social life, and more land was brought under cultivation through the efforts of the Chola rulers.
- Sathyanatha Iyer notes that the proper utilisation of the waters of the Kaveri was supplemented by the construction of great tanks, such as the Vairamegha tank at Uttaramerur.
- Canals were dug from the rivers to provide irrigation to tanks. The rivers and tanks utilised for these canals were as follows:
- Rivers: the Mudikondan River, the Vira Chola North River, the Madhurantaka North River, and the Vikraman River.
- Tanks: the Kandaradhitha Big Tank, the Viranarayanan Tank, the Madurantaka Big Tank, and the Sundara Chola Big Tank — all constructed by the Chola rulers.
- Most people were engaged in agriculture; land was held by both individuals and communities, and there was peasant proprietorship alongside other forms of land tenure. The poor agricultural coolie depended solely on agriculture.
- Land was given freely, or donated by the ruler, to the Brahmins — as Ekabhoga villages — and as Devadanam land (land given to temples). Cattle used for cultivation were also cared for; thus, every effort was made by the rulers to bring more land under cultivation.
- There was steady progress in the reclamation of forest and waste lands, which were gradually brought under the plough.
Taxation
- Tax was collected from the people. Purav, later known as Irai or Kadamai, was a land tax, while tax-free lands were known as Iraiyili. The kinds of taxes imposed by the government were as follows:
- Kudimai (tax collected from those who cultivated lands);
- Ankadipattam (tax on those who used water from a tank);
- Nilanirpattam (tax on those who used water from a tank);
- Kusakkanam (potters’ tax);
- Tharigurai (weavers’ tax);
- Ilamputchi (toddy drawers’ tax).
- Tax evaders were punished. Land tax and other taxes were collected by the village Sabhas, and the taxes so collected were deposited into the government treasury.
Weights and Measures
- For the purpose of buying and selling, many kinds of weights and measures were used during the Chola period.
- Grains were measured using the pidi, alakku, ulakku, and uri.
- Cubic measures were the ma, kuruni, manjadi, and kalanju.
- Linear measures were the viral, jan, and mulam.
Trade
Internal Trade and Foreign Trade
- Weavers engaged in weaving produced cloth; blacksmiths produced iron articles, while goldsmiths made gold and silver ornaments. Both internal and external trade flourished, supported by guilds — akin to chambers of commerce — which protected the interests of merchants.
- Nilakanda Sastri writes: “The metal industries and the jewelers’ art had reached a high state of perfection.” Since the inscriptions refer to only a limited range of occupations, we do not have much information about the occupations of the wider population.
- There were salt pans at Kanyakumari, Variyur, and Ayturai, which were among the more important centres of salt manufacture.
- Regarding transportation, roads were maintained by local authorities; the better class of roads was known as the Peru Vali. These trunk roads connected distant parts of the country — among them the Andhra road (Vadugapperuvali) and the road to Kongu (Kongupperuvali) — and there were also merchants’ guilds.
- The nanadesis were a powerful, autonomous corporation of merchants whose activities took little or no account of political boundaries.
- The Chola country had brisk foreign trade: ships from China and Arabia came to the Cholamandalam ports, and the Cholas maintained trading contacts with China, Indo-China, Ceylon, Sumatra, and Java.
- Goods exported from the Chola country included pearls, ivory, cardamom, pepper, perfumes, cotton textiles, and coral. Horses were imported into India from the Arabs, and those who purchased these horses and sold them to the native population were called Kudirai Chetties.
- Nilakanda Sastri writes: “The extensive trade described by Marco Polo and Wassaf in the beginning of the fourteenth century could not have sprung up suddenly, and its beginnings must be traced to Chola times if not to an earlier period.”
- Articles such as pearls, cardamom, pepper, sandalwood, and cosmetics were exported to foreign countries; the Chola country maintained maritime contact with China, Southeast Asian countries, Arabia, and Persia.
- The barter system was also in practice. Traders were also known as Nagarathar and Manikiramattar, and bonds were used to secure loans.
Coins
- Various coins made of gold, silver, and copper were in use, bearing the tiger and fish symbols.
- Kalanju, Manjadi, and Kachchanam were in use; Pon was the name for a coin, and kasu was a copper coin.
Literature
- The Chola period was in no way lagging in the field of Tamil literature; the country produced a good number of great scholars during this era, the notable scholars of the period being Kambar, Sekkilar, Meykandar, Puhalendi, Pattinathar, and Ottakkuthar.
- K.A.N. Sastri writes: “In literature as in most other spheres the age of the Imperial Cholas constitutes the most creative epoch of South Indian history.”
- The literary works of the period can be classified as: Saivite works, Vaishnavite works, Jain works, Buddhist works, Grammatical works, and Other works.
Saivite Works
- The devotional hymns of Sambandar, Appar, and Sundarar were compiled by Nambi during the reign of Rajaraja I into seven Tirumarais (Divine Literature) — the first three being those of Sambandar, the next three those of Appar, and the seventh that of Sundarar; together, these seven Tirumarais are known as the Tevaram.
- The Thiruvasakam, written by Manickavasagar, formed the eighth Tirumarai; the ninth Tirumarai consists of the hymns of nine saints, and Tirumular’s Tirumantiram was the tenth Tirumarai.
- The eleventh Tirumarai consists of the hymns of many poets; the Periapuranam, written by Sekkilar, formed the twelfth Tirumarai. This work deals with the biographies of the 63 Nayanmars (Saiva saints) and was written in the 12th century AD; Sekkilar was a Chola minister.
- The Periapuranam has influenced the lives and thought of the Tamil Saiva population; Nilakanda Sastri observes that, in every way, it is a composition that worthily commemorates the great age of the Imperial Cholas and their sustained devotion to Saivism.
- The Kalladum was composed by Kalladanar; it refers to the miracles wrought by Shiva on account of Manikkavasagar, Idaikadar, and others, and is believed to belong to the 10th century AD.
Vaishnavite Works
- The hymns of the twelve Alwars were compiled by Nathamuni into the Nalayira Divya Prabandham; the earliest three Alwars — Pei, Poykai, and Pudam — belonged to the pre-Pallava period. The hymns of Andal’s Tiruppavai spread as far as Southeast Asia.
- Ramanuja, the great Vaishnavite scholar and expounder of Vishishtadvaita, wrote commentaries on the Vedas; Kambar wrote the Ramayana (Kamba Ramayanam), a masterpiece of Tamil literature, composed in the 12th century AD.
Jain Works
- The Jivaka Chintamani, an epic, was written by Thiruttakka Thevar; besides religious matter, it describes nature and contains excellent similes and ethical teachings. The Valayapathi is another Jain work.
- The Neelakesi is a Jain work whose author is unknown; it deals with ethics and emphasises ahimsa (non-violence), and contains 894 verses.
- Another Jain work, Udayanakumara Kaviyam, contains 367 poems; other Jain works include the Yashodha Kavyam and the Meru Manthara Puranam.
Buddhist Works
- The Kundalakesi, a Buddhist work, was written by Nathakuthanar; it describes the life of the Buddha and criticises other religions, though only 19 of its poems survive.
- The Chulamani, written by Tholamoli Thevar, is another Buddhist work, containing 2,331 verses.
Grammatical Works
- Iraiyanar Kalaviyal and Nambi Agapporul were treatises on Akam; Purapporul Venbamalai was a treatise on Puram.
- Yapperunkalam and Yapperunkalakarikai were treatises on prosody, and Thandialankaram dealt with poetics.
- Ilampuranar wrote a commentary on the Tolkappiyam, and Adiyarkkunallar wrote a valuable commentary on the Silappathikaram.
- The Virasoliyam of Budhamitra and the Nannul by Pavanandhi are books on grammar.
Other Works
- The Kalingathu Parani, written by Jeyamkondar, describes the war that took place in the north of Kalinga and the exploits of Kulothunga; it is a masterpiece describing these events in detail.
- Nilakanda Sastri writes: “The survival of the Kalingattupparani in its entirety is perhaps due to its supreme merit; for there are several instances in the history of Indian literatures of one good book killing many inferior ones. Jeyamkondar had many imitators but no rival among the poets of later times.”
- The Perungadai is the work of Konguvelir; the style of the author is very direct, and the poem takes a high rank among the literary works of the Tamil world.
- The Moovarulaa was composed by Ottakkuthar, the court poet of Vikrama Chola, Kulottunga II, and Rajaraja II.
- Kulothunkan Pillai Tamil, Nalavenba, Athichoodi, Konrai Vendhan, and Nalvali were other literary works containing moral lessons.
