Major Stages in the Evolution of Art and Architecture
India’s architectural tradition spans almost four millennia, evolving through a series of distinctive stages — from the well-planned cities of the Indus Valley Civilization, through the stupas and rock-cut caves of the Mauryan and post-Mauryan periods, to the birth of Indian temple architecture under the Guptas and its crystallisation into the Nagara, Dravida, and Vesara styles in the post-Gupta period. For UPSC History Optional aspirants, this evolutionary arc is foundational: it links individual monuments studied elsewhere in the syllabus — the Great Bath, the Sanchi stupa, the Gupta temples at Deogarh and Bhitargaon, and the early Dravida and Vesara temples at Aihole and Mahabalipuram — into a single continuous narrative of stylistic development. This article traces this evolution stage by stage, from the Indus Valley Civilization to the emergence of the three great regional temple styles in the post-Gupta period.
India has had a rich tradition of architecture spanning almost four millennia, and the basic foundation for the development of Indian architecture was laid during the ancient period.
The Indus Valley Civilization
- The earliest remains of the builder’s art are furnished by remarkable specimens of the architecture of the age of the Indus Valley Civilization.
- Ruins of elaborate structures have come to light during excavations; towns and buildings of the Indus Valley Civilization were well planned.
- The most outstanding monuments of this phase’s architecture include the Great Bath and granary, the multi-pillared assembly hall, and the temple-like structure at Mohenjodaro.
- From Harappa comes evidence of six granaries in the citadel, and from Lothal comes evidence of a dockyard.
- The Great Bath at Mohenjodaro measured 11.88 × 7.01 × 2.43 metres; the floor of the bath was made of burnt bricks set in gypsum.
- A remarkable feature of Indian architecture at this stage was the extensive use of burnt bricks for construction.
The Vedic Period
- A long stretch of time separates the proto-historic phase of architecture from the early historical phase.
- The Vedic Aryans, who appeared next on the scene, lived in houses built of wood, bamboo, and reeds; since their religion was simple, such houses were adequate for their daily ritualistic needs, and they therefore contributed little to the development of architecture.
- It was with the second urbanisation in the 6th century BCE, and the accompanying expansion of economic activity, that architecture further evolved in India.
- The Jatakas and other contemporary works speak of beautiful buildings in the cities.
The Mauryan Period
- In ancient India, the high-water mark in architectural achievement was reached during the Mauryan period; the architecture of this period can be seen in stupas, caves, and residential buildings.
Stupas
- Stupas were solid domes of brick or stone masonry, erected to commemorate a sacred spot or to house relics of the Buddha.
- Ashoka was a great builder of huge stupas, and tradition ascribes to him the construction of eighty-four thousand of them; the Great Stupa at Sanchi is generally believed to have been built by Ashoka.
- Huen Tsang found many hundreds of Ashokan stupas.
Cave Architecture
- Ashoka and his grandson also excavated cave dwellings for the residence of monks; a series of interesting caves are situated in the Barabar Hills.
- The Sudama Cave was dedicated by Ashoka to the merchants of the Ajivika sect.
- The Karna Chaupar Cave, excavated in the king’s 19th regnal year, is simply a rectangular hall with an arched roof; these chambers, hewn out of the hard and refractory gneiss, had their interior walls burnished like a mirror.
Residential Architecture
- Unfortunately, there are no extant specimens of the residential buildings of the Mauryan age.
- That they were magnificent, however, is evident from Megasthenes’ description of the magnificent palaces in the capital city of Pataliputra.
- Recent excavations at the site have laid bare their ruins, the most remarkable being those of the hundred-pillared hall.
The Post-Mauryan Period
- The next phase in the evolution of Indian architecture opens up in the post-Mauryan period.
- During the reign of the Shungas, a big stupa was constructed at Bharhut; now only a portion of its railings and one of the gateways survive. The railing is made of red sandstone and consists of uprights, crossbars, and coping stones.
- Another specimen of architecture of this age comes from Bodh Gaya, where the railing around the stupa also belongs to the post-Mauryan period.
- Sanchi contains three big stupas, all well preserved; the big stupa, originally constructed by Ashoka, was enlarged during this period, and four elaborately constructed gateways were added to the railing, one at each cardinal direction.
- Besides these, many of the large caves were excavated, such as those at Bedsa, Bhaja, Kondane, Junnar, Nasik, Ajanta, and Ellora; these caves served the purpose of either a chaitya or a vihara.
The Gupta Period
- The next important landmark in the development of Indian architecture in ancient times took place during the Gupta period, which marks the beginning of Indian temple architecture.
- This was a formative age of experimentation in a number of forms and designs, out of which two important temple styles emerged — the Nagara style and the Dravida style.
Types of Gupta Temples
- The Gupta temples are simple, unpretentious structures. The following well-defined types of temples may be recognised:
- a flat-roofed square temple with a shallow pillared porch in front;
- a flat-roofed square temple with a covered ambulatory around the sanctum, preceded by a pillared porch, sometimes with a second storey above;
- a square temple with a low, squat shikhara above;
- a rectangular temple with an apsidal back and a barrel-vaulted roof above;
- a circular temple, with shallow rectangular projections at the four cardinal faces.
- The first three types of temples may be regarded as the forerunners of the medieval Indian temple styles; the second type in particular crystallised into the Nagara style, and the third into the Dravida style.
The Post-Gupta Period
- The post-Gupta period constituted another significant landmark in the evolution of ancient Indian architecture.
- The period saw the emergence of three main styles — the Nagara, the Dravida, and the Vesara — in North India, South India, and the Deccan, respectively.
Nagara Style
- The Nagara-style temple is a square with a number of graduated projections (rathakas) in the middle of each face, which gives it a cruciform ground plan on the exterior.
- In elevation, it exhibits a tower (shikhara) that gradually curves inward, capped by a spheroid slab with ribs around the edge (amalaka).
- Typical examples of Nagara-style temples in ancient India are the Dasavatara temple at Deogarh and the brick temple at Bhitargaon.
Dravida Style
- The Dravida-style temple has its sanctum cella invariably situated within an ambulatory of storeys, one after another, in receding dimensions.
- Notable examples of the Dravida style include the Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara, and the Shiva temples at Bhumara and Aihole.
- The Dravida style also encompassed Pallava temples, such as the Kailashnath temple at Kanchi and the richly ornamented Vaikuntaperumal temple.
Vesara Style
- The Vesara style was an admixture of the Nagara and the Dravida styles, and includes temples at Aihole and Vatapi.
- Notable examples are the Ladkhan temple, the Huchimalligudi temple, and the Papanatha temple, among others.
Pallava Architecture
- The architecture of the post-Gupta phase also includes the seven ratha temples found at Mahabalipuram, along with the cave-style temples of the Pallavas.
The architecture of ancient India thus evolved through distinctive phases, laying a strong foundation for Indian culture; this rich tradition of architecture went on to receive further rich infusions in the ages that followed.
