Q. Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs?

(a) Dholavira

(b) Kalibangan

(c) Rakhigarhi

(d) Ropar

Answer: (a) Dholavira

Notes:
  • Dholavira:
    • Dholavira, an ancient Harappan city located in present-day Gujarat, India, is well-known for its sophisticated water management system.
    • The people of Dholavira developed an elaborate system of water harvesting and storage, consisting of a series of dams, stepwells, and interconnected reservoirs. This system allowed the city to conserve and channel rainwater effectively, which was crucial in the semi-arid environment of the Rann of Kutch.
    • It was discovered in 1968 by archaeologist Jagat Pati Joshi.
    • After Mohen-jo-Daro, Ganweriwala and Harappa in Pakistan and Rakhigarhi in Haryana of India, Dholavira is the fifth largest metropolis of Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).
    • It was named as a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the name Dholavira: a Harappan City on 27 July 2021.
    • Location:
      • The ancient city of Dholavira is an archaeological site at Kachchh District, in the state of Gujarat, which dates from the 3rd to mid-2nd millennium BCE.
      • Dholavira’s location is on the Tropic of Cancer.
      • It is located on Khadir bet island in the Kachchh Desert Wildlife Sanctuary in the Great Rann of Kachchh.
      • Unlike other Harappan antecedent towns normally located near to rivers and perennial sources of water, the location of Dholavira in the island of Khadir bet.
    • Distinct Features of the Dholavira Site:
      • Cascading series of water reservoirs.
      • Outer fortification.
      • Two multi-purpose grounds, one of which was used for festivities and other as a marketplace.
      • Nine gates with unique designs.
      • Funerary architecture featuring tumulus — hemispherical structures like the Buddhist Stupas.
      • Multi-layered defensive mechanisms, extensive use of stone in construction and special burial structures.
  • Kalibangan (Rajasthan):
    • Location: located on the left or southern banks of the Ghaggar (Ghaggar-Hakra River) in Hanumangarh District, Rajasthan.
    • Known for early evidence of plowed agricultural fields but not for an advanced water management system.
    • Major Findings:
      • It is made up of three mounds.
      • Known for its remarkablefire altars and the world’s earliest attested ploughed field.
      • The earliest form of artificial irrigation was practised.
      • Different types of burials show social inequalities.
      • Mesopotamian pottery was discovered at the site, showing the trade relations.
      • Burnt bricks were used only for drains at Kalibangan.
  • Rakhigarhi (Haryana):
    • Location: Hisar district, Haryana (Sarasvati River)
    • One of the largest Indus Valley Civilization sites, but it is not specifically known for water management systems like Dholavira.
    • Major Findings:
      • DNA analysis of Skeletal revealed that the Harappan civilization inhabitants had a distinct origin.
      • Land townships were enclosed with mud and burnt brick homes.
      • Efficient drainage system and proper sanitation.
      • The granary consisted of mud bricks and the floor was made of rammed earth plastered with mud.
      • A seal with an alligator symbol was discovered.
  • Ropar (Punjab):
    • Location: Rupnagar, Punjab (Sutlej River)
    • Major Findings:
      • Transition from village to town in period c. 600–200 BCE, and yielded Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) and punch-marked and copper coins.
      • A seal with an inscription in Brahmi.
      • Houses made of stone, mud-brick and burnt brick.
      • Iron workshop and agate beads in NBPW.

Q. From the decline of Guptas until the rise of Harshavardhana in the early seventh century, which of the following kingdoms were holding power in Northern India?

  1. The Guptas of Magadha
  2. The Paramaras of Malwa
  3. The Pushyabhutis of Thanesar
  4. The Maukharis of Kanauj
  5. The Yadavas of Devagiri
  6. The Maitrakas of Valabhi

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1, 2 and 5 only
(b) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 5 and 6 only

Answer: (b) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only

Notes:
  • From the decline of Guptas until the rise of Harshvardhanas, new ruling dynasties emerged in different part of Northern India. The most prominent ones were- The Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar, Maukharies of Kannauj, Maitrakas of Vallabhi, etc. 
  • The Maitrakas were tributary chiefs of the Guptas, who established an independent kingdom in western India. Dhruvasena II was the most important ruler of the Maitrakas. He was a contemporary of Harshavardhana and was married to his daughter. 
  • The Maukharies ruled over Kanauj, a city in western Uttar Pradesh, which gradually replaced Pataliputra as a political center of north India. Maukharies were also the subordinate rulers of the Guptas and used the title of samanta. Harshavardhana’s sister Rajyashri was married to Grihavarman. 
  • An important ruling family to gain prominence after the fall of the Gupta was that of the Pushyabhutis who had their capital at Thanesar (Thanesvara in Kurukshetra). The dynasty became influential with the accession of Prabhakarvardhana, who was able to defeat the Hunas and strengthen his position in the regions of Punjab and Haryana.  
  • Yadava dynasty ruled in deccan near Devgiri (Daultabad) between 12th–14th-century AD. 
  • The Paramara dynasty ruled Malwa and surrounding areas in west-central India between 9th and 14th centuries AD.   
Pushyabhuti dynasty:
  • The Pushyabhutis, also known as the Vardhana dynasty, were a ruling dynasty in northern India during the 6th and 7th centuries. 
  • The dynasty’s capital was initially Sthaneshwar (modern-day Thanesar, Haryana), but was later moved to Kanyakubja (modern-day Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh).
  • The first ruler was Prabhakarvardhana, who was succeeded by his sons Rajyavardhana and Harsha. The last ruler was Harshavardhana, who reigned from 606 to 647 CE.
kingdom in 590 CE

Q. With reference to the history of ancient India, which of the following statements is/are correct?

  1. Mitakshara was the civil law for upper castes and Dayabhaga was the civil law for lower castes.
  2. In the Mitakshara system, the sons can claim right to the property during the lifetime of the father, whereas in the Dayabhaga system, it is only after the death of the father that the sons can claim right to the property.
  3. The Mitakshara system deals with the matters related to the property held by male members only of a family, whereas the Dayabhaga system deals with the matters related to the property held by both male and female members of a family.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3
(d) 3 only

Answer: (b) 2 only

Notes:
  • Dayabhaga and Mitakshara are two schools of Hindu law that differ in their views on property ownership, inheritance, and succession practices in India. Mitakshara and Dayabhaga terms were used to denote regions. It is not related to the caste system.
  • The Mitakshara Law applies to the whole of India except Bengal and Assam. The Dayabhaga Law applies to the communities living in the states of Bengal and Assam and other parts of the world.
  • The difference between Dayabhaga and Mitakshara is in the basic idea of them. Dayabhaga does not give anyone the right to property before the death of their forefathers whereas Mitakshara gives anyone the right to property just after their birth.
  • Dayabhaga system prevails in West Bengal and allows both the male and female members of the family to be coparceners. Mitakshara system, on the other hand, prevails all over India except West Bengal and allows only the male members to be coparceners. 
Mitakshara Law SchoolDayabhaga Law School
The term Mitakshara is derived from the name of a commentary written by Vijnaneswara, on the Yajnavalkya Smriti.The term Dayabhaga is derived from a similarly named text written by Jimutavahana.
It is observed in all parts of India and subdivided into the Benares, the Mithila, the Maharashtra, and the Dravida schools.It is observed in Bengal and Assam.
A son, by birth, acquires an interest in the ancestral property of the joint family.A son has no automatic ownership right by birth but acquires it on the death of his father.
All the members enjoy coparcenary rights during the father’s lifetime.Sons do not enjoy coparcenary rights when the father is alive.
A coparcener’s share is not defined and cannot be disposed of.The share of each coparcener is defined and can be disposed of.
A wife cannot demand partition but has the right to a share in any partition between her husband and her sons.Here, the same right does not exist for the women because the sons cannot demand partition as the father is the absolute owner.

Q. With reference to India, the terms ‘Halbi, Ho and Kui’ pertain to

(a) Dance forms of Northwest India

(b) Musical instruments

(c) Pre-historic cave paintings

(d) Tribal languages

Answer: (d) Tribal languages

Notes:
  • Halbi, also known as Bastari, is an Eastern Indo-Aryan language and is spoken by tribes across the central part of India.  
    • It is written in Devanagari and Odia script, however it is used mainly as an oral language, particularly for trade, and few Habli speakers can read and write their language.  
  • Ho is tribal language, which is written in Warang Chiti script. It is the mother tongue of nearly 10 lakh tribal people living in Odisha and Jharkhand. 
  • Kui is a South-Eastern Dravidian language spoken by the Kandhas. It is mostly spoken in Odisha, and written in the Odia script.
    • The Kui language was also referred to as the Kuinga language during the historical period. It is closely related to the Gondi and Kuvi languages. 
Dance forms of Northwest India
  • Garba (Gujarat):
    • A dance festival held during Navratri in Gujarat and other parts of northwest India. The dance symbolizes the womb and celebrates life, while the circle of the dance represents the cycle of life.
  • Bhangra (Punjab):
    • A folk dance from Punjab that originated as a celebratory dance during the spring harvest festival of Vaisakhi. It has become a global phenomenon.
  • Dandiya (Gujarat):
    • Dandiya is the folk dance of Gujarat, which shows the great vigor and joy of the in habitants of the North West State of India.
    • Dressed in colorful costumes, the people of the desert play dandiya gracefully, by holding big sticks in their hands (used as the prop for the dance). The dances are accompanied by the musical instrument called the ‘Meddale’, which is played by the drummer positioned in the centre.
  • Tarpha Nach:
    • ‘Tarpha Nach’ or ‘Pavri Nach‘ is the dance of the Kokna tribals native to the hilly regions of the north-west India. These dances derive their names from the wind instruments of ‘Tharpa’ or ‘Pavri’, which are made of dried gourd, played during the dance performance.
    • During the dance performance, the performers stand in a close formation, holding each other by the waist, and then dance to the tune played by the wind instruments, gracefully. The dances are performed by men alone as well, who form pyramids or rapidly revolve a dancer round a stout pole.
  • Tera Tali (Rajasthan):
    • Native to the ‘Kamar’ tribe of North West India, Tera Tali is performed by two or three women.
    • The performers sit on the ground while performing the Tera Tali, which is an elaborate ritual, followed in the region. Small metal cymbals called ‘Manjiras’ are tied to different parts of the body, mostly on the legs, of the dance performer. The dancers hold the metal cymbals in their hands and strike them in a rhythmic manner.
  • Tippani dance:
    • The Tippani dance originated in the Chorwad region of Saurashtra. Working women take a wooden rod (sometimes tipped with iron at one end) and beat the floor with it.
  • Padhar dance:
    • The Padhar dance is performed by the Padhar community.
State NameFolk Dance
RajasthanGhoomar, Suisini, kalbeliya, Chakri, Ganagor, Jhulan Leela, Jhuma, Suisini, Ghapal, Panihari, Ginad etc.
GujratGarba, Dandiya Ras, Bhavai, Tippani Juriun, Bhavai.
PunjabBhangra, Giddha, Daff, Dhaman, Bhand, Naqual.
HaryanaJhumar, Phag Dance, Daph, Dhamal, Loor, Gugga, Khor, Gagor.
Himachal PradeshKinnauri, Thoda, Jhora, Jhali, Chharhi, Dhaman, Chhapeli, Mahasu, Dangi, Chamba, Thali, Jhainta, Daf, Stick dance.
UttarakhandChappeli, Gadhwali, Kumayuni, Kajari, Jhora, Raslila etc.
Cave paintings
  • The Ambadevi rock shelters have the oldest cave paintings in India, dating back to 25,000 years.
  • The Bhimbetka rock shelters are dated to about 8,000 BC.
  • In Tamil Nadu, ancient Paleolithic Cave paintings are found in Kombaikadu, Kilvalai, Settavarai and Nehanurpatti.
  • In Odisha they are found in Yogimatha and Gudahandi.
  • In Karnataka, these paintings are found in Hiregudda near Badami.

Q. With reference to the history of ancient India, Bhavabhuti, Hastimalla and Kshemeshvara were famous

(a) Jain monks

(b) Playwrights

(c) Temple architects

(d) Philosophers

Answer: (b) Playwrights

Notes:
  • Bhavabhuti, Hastimalla, and Kshemeshvara were renowned Sanskrit scholars, poets, and playwrights of ancient India, known for their literary contributions.
  • Bhavabhuti:
    • He was a celebrated playwright and poet who lived during the 8th century CE.
    • Bhavabhuti is credited with writing three major Sanskrit plays:
      • Malatimadhava (a romantic drama)
      • Mahaviracharita (a play on the early life of Lord Rama)
      • Uttararamacharita (depicting the later life of Rama, including his separation from Sita)
    • Bhavabhuti is often considered to rival Kalidasa in literary excellence.
  • Hastimalla:
    • He was a lesser-known poet and dramatist, active in the later medieval period, particularly in the Deccan region.
    • Hastimalla was a Jain poet in the court of the Solanki rulers.
    • His works and influence are mentioned in the context of court poetry and regional literature.
  • Kshemeshvara:
    • Kshemeshwara was the court poet of Mahipala of Kannauj.
    • Kshemeshvara was an author and poet known for writing the Narmamala, a work in classical Sanskrit literature.

Q. Which one of the following statements is correct?

(a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora River.

(b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal River.

(c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada River.

(d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari River.

Answer: (a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora River.

Notes:
  • Ajanta is a series of rock-cut caves in the Sahyadri ranges (Western Ghats) on Waghora river near Aurangabad in Maharashtra. There are a total of 29 caves (all Buddhist) of which 25 were used as Viharas or residential caves while 4 were used as Chaitya or prayer halls. This UNESCO World Heritage Site is a collection of paintings, sculptures and temples of Buddhist art, constructed from 200 BC to 500 AD.
  • India’s best-preserved group of Buddhist monuments, known as Sanchi Stupa, is located in west-central Madhya Pradesh. It lies in an upland plateau region, just west of the Betwa River and about 5 miles (8 km) southwest of Vidisha. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1989.
  • The Buddhist monument Pandavleni Caves, also known by the name Pandu Lena caves and Trirashmi caves are a group of 24 rock-cut caves. They are located on the north face of Trivashmi hill of Nasik city. Nasik city is situated on the banks of river Godavari.
  • Amravati Stupa illustrates Lord Buddha in a human form, subduing an elephant. The stupa is taller than the Sanchi stupa and has high platforms, extending in the four cardinal directions, along with a huge circular dome. Amravati Stupa is situated near river Krishna.

Must Read:

Q. With reference to Chausath Yogini Temple situated near Morena, consider the following statements:

  1. It is a circular temple built during the reign of Kachchhapaghata Dynasty.
  2. It is the only circular temple built in India.
  3. It was meant to promote the Vaishnava cult in the region.
  4. Its design has given rise to a popular belief that it was the inspiration behind the Indian Parliament building.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 4 only
(d) 2, 3 and 4 only

Answer: (c) 1 and 4 only

Notes:
  • According to an inscription, the temple was constructed by Maharaja Devapala of the Kacchapagata dynasty, dated VS 1380 (1323 CE).
    • This temple is situated on top of a small hill and shows a circular plan.
    • The small cells that form 64 subsidiary shrines have a shallow pillared mandapa in front; while a circular main shrine facing east stands in the middle of the courtyard.
    • The cells and the main shrine are flat-topped, but it is believed that initially, each had a shikhara on top.
    • While the 64 Yoginis originally placed in the 64 subsidiary shrines are now missing, a Shiva linga has taken their places in each cell. 
  • Chausath Yogini temple near Jabalpur is also circular in design.
    • It was not meant to promote Vaishnavism as it is dedicated to Yoginis i.e. female masters of Yoga.
  • There is much similarity between the design of both the buildings, so some claim that it inspired the design of the Parliament building.

Must Read: Temple Architecture

Q. Consider the following pairs:

Historical placeWell-known for
1.BurzahomRock-cut shrines
2.ChandraketugarhTerracotta art
3.GaneshwarCopper artefacts

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 2 and 3 only

Answer: (d) 2 and 3 only

Notes:
  • At Burzahom, Kashmir valley, tools made of bones and stones and tools representing the ritualistic practices were found. It represents the natural setting of the Neolithic people.
  • Chandraketugah is a site in West Bengal near Kolkata. According to historians, the place dates back to the 3rd century, which is pre-Mauryan era.  The place has always generate curiosity among the archaeologists and various excavations have taken place here and a number of terracotta artworks has been unearthed. 
  • Ganeshwar is a famous site in Khetri belt in Rajasthan. At the sites of Ganeshwar-Jodhpur near the Khetri copper mines, several copper artefacts were excavated viz. arrowheads, spearheads, bangles, pottery and chisels etc.
    • ​Ganeshwar had mainly supplied copper objects to Harappa. The archaeological site was named after the present-day village, Gilund, and is locally known as Modiya Magari which means “bald habitation mound”.