“Discuss the changing interface between state and civil society in post-independent India.” (2017)
The Indian state and civil society have moved through phases of partnership, confrontation, collaboration and control. Antonio Gramsci argued that state and civil society are intertwined, together forming what he called the “integral state”, rather than being separate spheres. In India, the balance between them has shifted with the development model and the political climate.
Phases of the interface
| Phase | Nature of interface | Markers |
|---|---|---|
| 1947–mid-1960s: nation-building partnership | Gandhian constructive workers act as allies of planning | Bharat Sevak Samaj (1952) with the Community Development Programme; Bhoodan; AVARD (1958) |
| Late 1960s–1970s: confrontation | Disillusion with development; the state seen as adversary | JP movement; Emergency (1975–77); FCRA, 1976; civil liberties groups |
| 1980s: suspicion and co-option | Grassroots groups and state funding grow together | Kudal Commission inquiry into Gandhian bodies (1982); CAPART (1986); Seventh Plan recognises voluntary agencies; Chipko and Narmada movements |
| 1990s–2000s: rights-based collaboration | Liberalisation opens space for NGOs as partners and advocates | National Advisory Council (2004); RTI 2005, NREGA 2005, Forest Rights Act 2006; National Policy on the Voluntary Sector (2007) |
| 2010s–present: regulation and polarisation | Mass protest alongside tighter control | Anna Hazare movement and Lokpal Act (2013); mandatory CSR spending (2013); FCRA amendments 2020; FCRA Amendment Bill 2026 sent to a Joint Parliamentary Committee |
Reading the shifts
- Rajni Kothari (1984) saw the rise of “non-party political formations” as a response to decaying parties and institutions. Political activity was shifting into civil society.
- Partha Chatterjee shows that the interface differs by class. The middle class deals with the state as rights-bearing civil society. The poor negotiate as political society, through welfare, patronage and mobilisation.
- Neera Chandhoke (The Conceits of Civil Society, 2003) cautions against the post-1990s celebration of civil society, which came as the state was withdrawing. An NGO-led civil society without politics can mute the struggles that give it critical force.
- The 2020 FCRA amendments did three things:
- banned passing foreign funds on to other organisations;
- cut the ceiling on administrative spending from 50 to 20 per cent;
- required all foreign funds to arrive in a designated SBI account in New Delhi.
The Supreme Court upheld them in 2022. Over 16,000 organisations lost FCRA registration between 2015 and 2024. Supporters call this accountability; critics call it shrinking civic space.
Conclusion
The interface has moved from Gandhian partnership, through confrontation and rights-based collaboration, to regulated coexistence. The RTI and Forest Rights Acts show that civil society gains most leverage when it keeps its independence while engaging the state. It loses leverage when it becomes either a subcontractor or a permanent adversary.