Hindi and Religious Literatures in Mughal India
- A number of regional dialects spoken across northern India contributed to the development of Hindi, with Brajbhasha, Awadhi, Rajasthani, Maithili, Bhojpuri, and Malwi among the principal dialects from which it emerged. Khari Boli, a mixed form of Hindi, also came into being during the 15th–16th centuries.
- Under Mughal rule, Akbar’s policy of religious toleration proved especially conducive to the growth of Hindi literature during his reign, with numerous writers contributing to its flourishing across the Mughal period more broadly.
- The principal form of Hindi poetry to develop during this period was devotional (Bhakti) poetry, with Hindi literature as a whole flourishing under the broad influence of the Bhakti movement.
Hindi Literature
Kabir
- Kabir composed dohas and sakhis that remain popular even today, distilling — within remarkably short verse forms — a great deal of practical worldly wisdom.
Goswami Tulsidas (born 1523)
- Tulsidas began composing the Ramcharitamanas in 1574, drawing its subject matter from the story of Rama.
- The work’s enduring popularity rested substantially on its language, which closely mirrored Tulsidas’s own native Awadhi dialect.
- He also authored the Vinaya Patrika, a devotional prayer text that best captures his broader philosophical outlook.
- Tulsidas inspired numerous later writers, including Agradas and Nabhajidas, who together composed the Bhaktamal — a celebrated account of the great Vaishnava saints.
Surdas (1503–1563)
- A blind poet from Agra, Surdas is listed among the 36 singers and musicians employed at Akbar’s court, as recorded by Abul Fazl.
- His famous work is known as the Sur Sagar, in which he vividly describes the childhood exploits (leela) of Lord Krishna, alongside the beauty of Krishna and his beloved Radha.
- He composed in Braj Bhasha, employing rich and evocative imagery throughout his verse.
Mirabai
- Mirabai addressed Krishna directly as her divine lover, portraying in her verse the final, complete surrender of the devotee (bhakta) to the Supreme Being.
- She composed originally in the Marwari dialect of Rajasthan, with her works later adapted into Brajbhasha.
The Awadhi Sufi Tradition
- The Awadhi dialect of Hindi was considerably enriched by a number of Sufi poets:
- Maulana Daud, author of the Chandayan.
- Kutban, composer of the Mrigavati.
- Malik Muhammad Jayasi, who composed the Padmavat between A.D. 1520 and 1540 — widely regarded as the finest achievement of Awadhi literary excellence, and relating the story of Padmini, the Queen of Mewar.
- Usman, Shaikh Nabi, Kasim, and Mir Muhammad — further Muslim poets of the 17th and 18th centuries working within this tradition.
Brajbhasha Literature Under Akbar
- Literature in Brajbhasha flourished notably under Akbar’s patronage.
- Tansen and Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan both composed lyrics on the leela of Krishna. Abdur Rahim’s best-known work, the Rahim Satsai, is a celebrated collection of dohas.
Other Hindi Literary Figures in Mughal India
- Ras Khan, a Muslim devotee of Lord Krishna, was a celebrated Hindi writer, composing his famous work Prem Vatika around 1614, and writing his savaiyas and kavittas in a particularly attractive and accomplished style.
- Bihari Lal Chaube wrote the celebrated Bihari Satsai, composed under the patronage of Raja Jai Singh — his dohas and sorthas remain widely admired.
- Sundar, a Brahmin of Gwalior, wrote the Sundar Shringar in 1631, and also composed the Singhasan Battisi in the Braj language — he was honoured with the titles Kaviraya and Mahakaviraya by Shah Jahan.
- Nabhaji wrote the celebrated Bhaktamal, chronicling the important devotees and saints belonging to the traditions of Lord Krishna and Rama.
- Nand Das wrote the Raspanchadhyayi, the Vithal Katha, and the Chaurasi Vaishnava Ki Varta.
- Bhagwan Das and Man Singh both composed poetry in Hindi.
- Karan and Narhari Sahai served as court poets under Akbar, with Narhari Sahai honoured with the title Maha Patra.
- Khumbhan Das was another notable writer of Akbar’s period.
- Keshav Das wrote Kavi Priya, Ram Chandrika, and Rasik Priya, and died around 1617 A.D.
- Bhushan, a Hindi poet, was patronised by both Shivaji and Chhatrasal Bundela, authoring the Shivaraja Bhushana, Chhatrasal Dashaka, and Shivavati.
Hindi literature began a marked decline from the time of Aurangzeb onward, effectively marking the end of the era of its greatest poets.
Sanskrit
- In North India: During the Mughal period, Sanskrit ceased to function as the primary language of the imperial court. Though the Mughal emperors and princes — Dara Shikoh among them — did extend patronage to Sanskrit scholars, the language never again regained its earlier pre-eminence in Northern India.
- The Mughals nonetheless cultivated a deliberately multicultural and multilingual imperial image, one that involved repeated and sustained engagement with Sanskrit texts.
- Although the period produced relatively little in the way of significant or genuinely original Sanskrit scholarship, the sheer number of Sanskrit works produced remains, in itself, quite impressive.
- As before, most such works continued to be produced in South and East India, under the patronage of local rulers — though a smaller number were also produced by Brahmins employed within the imperial translation department.
- Jain and Brahman Sanskrit intellectuals visited the courts of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan in considerable numbers.
- A select few entered the royal court through direct imperial invitation, while others gained access through regional or sub-imperial patrons instead.
- These Sanskrit authors produced numerous works under direct imperial sponsorship, and participated actively in many aspects of court life — serving the Mughals as intellectual informants, astrologers, religious guides, translators, and even political negotiators.
- The Mughals also turned to these Sanskrit intellectuals for insight into other Indian practices and ideas capable of informing the broader imperial agenda — including, notably, the idea that Akbar himself represented an incarnation of the Hindu god Vishnu. Badauni, with evident discomfort, records that Brahmins introduced Sanskrit texts specifically predicting Akbar’s rise to power as an avatar of Vishnu.
Sanskrit Under Akbar
- Akbar patronised Bhanuchandra and Siddhichandra, who together produced a commentary on Bana’sKadambari.
- The Jains, in particular, provided Akbar access to certain Sanskrit-based practices that would later prove politically potent — including the practice of sun veneration.
- Bhanuchandra, a Tapa Gaccha ascetic sent to the Mughal court at Lahore by Hiravijaya in 1587, personally taught Akbar to recite the Sanskrit text Suryasahasranama (“Thousand Names of the Sun”).
- Siddhichandra, Bhanuchandra’s own Sanskrit biographer, records this episode in detail — later in his work, he portrays Akbar as devoted to sun-worship virtually to the exclusion of other religious practices.
- Bihari Krishnadas wrote the Parsi Prakasha, in which he provided Sanskrit equivalents for a large number of Persian terms.
- Another outstanding work of Akbar’s reign was the Ramavinoda of Ramachandra, an official at Akbar’s court.
Translation Works Under Akbar
- Akbar sponsored the translation of both great Sanskrit epics — the Ramayana and the Mahabharata — into Persian.
- The celebrated story of Nala and Damayanti was similarly rendered into Persian by Faizi, under the title Nal-o-Daman.
- Certain technical Sanskrit works — including Bhaskara’s Lilavati, the Panchatantra, and the Simhasana Dvatrimshika — were likewise translated into Persian during Akbar’s reign.
- These translations were, notably, genuine team efforts, requiring Mughal Muslim scholars to work closely alongside a cadre of Brahmin pandits. Frequently, no single individual involved possessed fluency in both Sanskrit and Persian — instead, the Brahmins would read the Sanskrit text aloud and verbally render it into Hindi, on the basis of which the Mughal translators then produced a written Persian version.
- In his bilingual grammar of the late 16th century, Krishnadasa similarly praises Akbar as an embodiment of Vishnu.
- Beyond the works already mentioned, numerous other Sanskrit texts were compiled or translated during Akbar’s reign, either by his own direct order or at the instance of his nobles.
Sanskrit Under Jahangir
- A substantial number of Sanskrit works continued to be translated into Persian during Jahangir’s reign as well, alongside the production of certain original new works — most prominent among them the Kirtisamullasa and Danamahacharitra of the poet Rudra.
- Jagannath, a prominent Sanskrit scholar, also resided at Jahangir’s court, enjoying his patronage.
- He was granted the title “Panditraj”, and produced outstanding Sanskrit works including the Manoramakuchamardana (on grammar), the Chitramimamsakhandana (on rhetoric), and the Asafvilasa, a eulogy dedicated to Asaf Khan.
Sanskrit Under Shah Jahan
- Sanskrit scholars continued to receive patronage under Shah Jahan as well, most notably Jagannatha Panditaraja and Kavindracharya Sarasvati — both figures are, in fact, explicitly mentioned in Persian-language chronicles from Shah Jahan’s own reign.
- Beyond Jagannath — who had earlier flourished at Jahangir’s court — several other scholars also resided at Shah Jahan’s court, including Vanshidhar Mishra and Harinarayana Mishra.
- Prominent Sanskrit works produced during Shah Jahan’s reign include:
- Munishvara’s Siddhanta Sarvabhauma.
- Bhagavati Svamin’s Kavyaviluti Prabodha.
- Vedangaraja’s Parsi Prakasha.
- Abdul Hamid Lahori, the great historian of Shah Jahan’s reign, records several further names of Sanskrit poets who received the emperor’s patronage.
Sanskrit Under Aurangzeb
- Aurangzeb, unlike his predecessors, was religiously orthodox and showed little genuine enthusiasm for Sanskrit learning, ultimately withdrawing imperial patronage from Sanskrit scholars altogether.
- Nevertheless, Sanskrit scholarship continued to flourish independently during his reign. Notable works compiled during this period include:
- Raghunath’s Muhurtamala.
- Chaturbhuja’s Ratnakalpadruma.
Sanskrit in South India
- Owing significantly to the inspiring presence of scholars such as Madhavacharya and Sayanacharya, Sanskrit literature continued to enjoy strong patronage from the kings of Vijayanagara.
- After 1565, this tradition of patronage was carried forward by the rulers of the Tuluva and Aravidu dynasties, the Nayakas of Tanjore, and the ruling chiefs of Travancore and Cochin.
- The various genres of Sanskrit literature cultivated during this period included mahakavyas, slesha kavyas, champu kavyas, natakas, and, in particular, historical kavyas.
- Raghunatha Nayaka, ruler of Tanjore, and his own court poets, made notable contributions to the mahakavya form.
- Srinivasa Dikshit, a minister at the Nayaka court of Gingee, was an exceptionally prolific writer, composing eighteen dramas and sixty kavyas in total.
- Govinda Dikshita flourished at the Nayaka court of Tanjore, authoring the Sahitya Sudha and the Sangita Sudhanidhi.
- The Sanskrit scholar Appayya Dikshita (1520–92), patronised by the Nayaka chiefs of Vellore, authored more than 100 books in total.
- Nilakantha Dikshita (17th century) served as a minister to Tirumala Nayaka of Madurai, composing several mahakavyas — among which two dealing with the Siva-leela and the penance of Bhagiratha are particularly notable.
- Chakrakavi, a notable Sanskrit poet, authored the Janaki Parinaya; Narayana (or Narayana Bhattatiri) was another significant literary figure of the period.
- Manaveda Zamorin, King of Kozhikode (1637–1648), made profuse and wide-ranging contributions across the fields of kavya, mimamsa, and grammar — though he excelled most notably in the mahakavya form, and is regarded as one of the greatest poets Kerala has produced.
Historical Kavyas and Natakas
- The historical kavyas and natakas composed during this period offer a genuinely valuable glimpse into the social perceptions and outlook of these Sanskrit writers.
- The very first of these historical kavyas was composed by a woman, Tirumalamba, described in contemporary inscriptions as “the reader.” Her work, the Varadambika Parinaya, deals with the marriage of Achyuta Deva Raya, carrying genuine historical value while also standing as one of the most beautiful examples of the champu form from this later period.
- The Sahitya Sudha (by Govinda Dikshita) and the Raghunathabhyudaya (by Ramabhadramba) together illuminate the heroic exploits of Raghunatha Nayaka of Tanjore, containing valuable references to numerous historical events.
- A number of mahakavyas based on the life of Shivaji and his son stand as important primary sources for Maratha history.
- The most significant work in this context is the Anupurana (or Sivabharata) — begun by Kavindra Paramananda, a contemporary of Shivaji, and subsequently continued by his son Devadatta and grandson Govinda, who further incorporated the life of Sambhaji into the narrative.
- The Tarkasangraha (c. 1625), by Annambhatta, remains the most widely used manual on logic produced in South India during this period.
- Vyasaraya (d. 1539) and his pupil Vijayindra (1576) made significant contributions to Dvaita philosophy.
- Dalapati (1490–1533), a senior official at the Nizam Shahi court of Ahmadnagar, wrote the Nrisimhaprasada, an extensive treatise on both religious and civil law.
- Some Muslim rulers were themselves celebrated as heroes within historical kavyas composed by their own court poets — as with Pandita Jagannath’sJagadabharana, composed in praise of Dara Shikoh, and the Asaf Vilasa, addressed to Asaf Khan.
- Dara Shikoh himself composed a prasasti (eulogy) in honour of Nrisimha Sarasvati of Benares.
The Broader Decline of Sanskrit Literature
- Despite the considerable body of work outlined above, Sanskrit literature was, on the whole, genuinely in decline during this period.
- Writers of the era grew increasingly preoccupied with producing numerous commentaries, rather than composing genuinely original works — and while scientific texts and works on music and philosophy did continue to appear, these grew progressively rarer, with the bulk of literary output consisting chiefly of commentaries on already-existing texts, or on grammar.
- One of the principal causes behind this decline was the parallel rise of vernacular literature during this same period.
- The Bhakti movement, which had earlier swept across the country, continued to inspire regional poets, who now composed elegant lyric poetry in languages far closer to everyday spoken speech.
- The enduring popularity of these vernacular literary works lay precisely in the immediate, direct response they evoked from ordinary people and the aristocracy alike.
