Bahmani Kingdom (Bahmanids): Its Growth and Disintegration
- The Bahmani Kingdom was founded by Ala-ud-Din Hasan Bahman Shah, who revolted against the Delhi Sultanate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1347. Its capital was Ahsanabad (Gulbarga) from 1347 to 1425, after which it was shifted to Muhammadabad (Bidar).
- The rise of the Bahmani kingdom, and its conflict with the Vijayanagara Empire down to the death of Deva Raya II (1446), has already been traced elsewhere.
Firuz Shah Bahmani (1397–1422)
- The most remarkable figure in the Bahmani kingdom during this period was Firuz Shah Bahmani. He was well-versed in the religious sciences — commentaries on the Quran, jurisprudence, and the like — and was especially fond of logic and the natural sciences such as botany and geometry. A skilled calligraphist and poet, he often composed extempore verses.
- According to Ferishta, he was fluent not only in Persian, Arabic, and Turkish, but also in Telugu, Kannada, and Marathi. His harem included a large number of wives from various countries and regions, including many Hindu wives, and he would converse with each in her own language.
- Patron of learning and culture: Firuz Shah was determined to make the Deccan the cultural centre of India, a goal aided by the decline of the Delhi Sultanate, which drove many learned men to migrate south. He also welcomed scholars from Iran and Iraq, and typically spent his evenings until midnight in the company of divines, poets, historians, and the wittiest of his courtiers.
- He had read both the Old and New Testaments and respected the tenets of all religions. Ferishta calls him an orthodox Muslim, whose only weaknesses were a fondness for wine and music.
- Induction of Hindus into administration: Firuz Shah Bahmani’s most notable step was the large-scale induction of Hindus into the administration. It was from his reign that Deccani Brahmins became prominent in governance, providing a counterweight to the growing influx of foreigners known as afaqis or gharibs. Many of these newcomers were Persians, whose influence encouraged the spread of Persian culture and Shia doctrines within the kingdom.
- The Bahmani rulers, though mostly Sunni, were tolerant in religious matters and did not persecute Shiism.
- Jizyah was not levied on Hindus during the early phase of Bahmani rule, nor is there any reference to it in later periods; where collected later, it appears to have been absorbed into the land revenue (kharaj).
- Science, trade, and expansion: Firuz Shah encouraged the pursuit of astronomy and built an observatory near Daulatabad. He paid close attention to his kingdom’s principal ports, Chaul and Dabhol, which drew trading ships from the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, bringing in luxury goods from across the world.
- He initiated Bahmani expansion towards Berar by defeating the Gond Raja Narsingh Rai of Kherla; Kherla was subsequently restored to Narsingh, who was made an amir of the kingdom and honoured with robes of state, including an embroidered cap.
- Conflict with Vijayanagara: Firuz Shah Bahmani’s marriage to a daughter of Deva Raya I, and his subsequent battles against Vijayanagara, have already been discussed; the struggle for control of the Krishna-Godavari basin continued nonetheless. In 1419, Firuz Shah suffered a major setback, being defeated by Deva Raya I — a reversal that weakened his position so severely that he was compelled to abdicate in favour of his brother, Ahmad Shah I.
Ahmad Shah I
- Ahmad Shah is remembered as a saint (wali) owing to his close association with the celebrated Sufi saint Gesu Daraz. Remarkably, he was also revered as a saint by Hindus, so much so that his urs (death anniversary) continued to be jointly celebrated until recent times.
- Conquest of Warangal: Ahmad Shah continued the struggle for control of the eastern seaboard of south India. Unable to forget that the ruler of Warangal had sided with Vijayanagara in the last two battles the Bahmani sultan had lost, he invaded Warangal in an act of retribution, defeated and killed its ruler, and annexed most of its territories.
- To consolidate his hold over these newly acquired territories, he shifted the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar, after which he turned his attention towards Malwa, Gondwana, and the Konkan.
Age of Mahmud Gawan (1463–1482)
- The second half of the 15th century saw the gradual rise of the Bahmani kingdom as the leading power in the south — a shift already presaged by Ahmad Shah’s conquest of Warangal, which showed the balance of power tilting in the Bahmanis’ favour.
- Following the death of Deva Raya II, confusion in Vijayanagara gave the Gajapati rulers of Orissa an opportunity to expand their influence in the region. The Bahmanis used this opening to consolidate their position in the south while expanding northwards towards Berar and Khandesh, and westwards towards the Konkan — bringing them into conflict with the rulers of Malwa and Gujarat.
- Meanwhile, the internal affairs of the kingdom were thrown into confusion by the ongoing struggle between the Afaqis (newcomers) and the Deccanis (oldcomers), a rivalry that persisted until Mahmud Gawan rose to power and prominence.
Mahmud Gawan’s Rise and Achievements
- An Iranian by birth, Mahmud Gawan first comes to notice in 1456, when he was placed at the head of a force to suppress a pretender who had risen against the reigning sultan. Steadily gaining influence at court, he was appointed a member of the council of regency in 1461, following the sultan’s death and the accession of a minor.
- After a series of invasions by the ruler of Malwa led to the dissolution of the regency council, a new prince was enthroned in 1463 who appointed Mahmud Gawan as wakil-i-sultanat (prime minister), conferring on him the titles Khwaja-i-Jahan and Malik-ut-Tajjar — the latter awarded despite Gawan never having been a trader (tujjar), following a precedent set by earlier rulers for their leading nobles.
- Territorial expansion: Mahmud Gawan dominated the affairs of state for twenty years, during which he sought to extend the kingdom’s frontiers both east and west.
- In the east, he clashed with the Gajapati ruler of Orissa, joining hands with Vijayanagara to expel him from the Coromandel coast, and made further gains at Orissa’s expense.
- His major military achievement, however, was in the west, where he overran the coastal areas including Dabhol and Goa — a heavy blow to Vijayanagara. Control of these ports expanded overseas trade with Iran and Iraq, while also boosting internal trade and manufactures.
- In the north, since the time of Ahmad Shah I, the Khalji rulers of Malwa had contested control of Gondwana, Berar, and the Konkan with the Bahmanis, who in turn sought and secured the support of the rulers of Gujarat. Although it had earlier been agreed that Kherla in Gondwana would go to Malwa and Berar to the Bahmani sultan, Malwa’s rulers remained eager to seize Berar. Mahmud Gawan fought a series of hard-won battles over Berar against Mahmud Khalji of Malwa, prevailing with active Gujarati support.
- Nature of Deccan politics: This pattern of conflict shows that struggles in the south did not divide neatly along religious lines — political and strategic considerations, and control over trade and commerce, were the more decisive causes of conflict. Nor did the struggles of north and south India proceed in isolation from one another: in the west, Malwa and Gujarat were drawn into Deccan affairs, while in the east, Orissa was simultaneously engaged in conflict with Bengal and eyed the Coromandel coast.
- Renewed conflict with Vijayanagara: Bahmani expansion east and west revived the conflict with Vijayanagara, which by this stage was no longer a match for Bahmani strength. Mahmud Gawan not only annexed the Tungabhadra doab, but also led a deep raid into Vijayanagara territory, reaching as far south as Kanchi.
Character of Mahmud Gawan
- In an age when drinking and the pursuit of pleasure were commonplace, Mahmud Gawan stood apart — a man of high character who never indulged in such pursuits.
- A devoted lover of justice, he treated rich and poor alike, and — though himself of the Irani group — showed it no favouritism.
- His most defining quality, however, was his unwavering devotion to his masters.
- Deeply compassionate towards the poor, he distributed a major share of his income among the needy and destitute.
- He led an austere, simple life, disliking pomp and ceremony — eating from earthenware and sleeping on ordinary mats.
Internal Reforms, Art and Architecture
- The old provinces (tarafs) were further sub-divided from four to eight, with the governor of each fort now appointed directly by the sultan.
- The salaries and obligations of each noble were fixed, payable either in cash or through the assignment of a jagir; those paid via jagir were allowed expenses for revenue collection.
- In every province, a tract of land (khalisa) was reserved for the Sultan’s own expenses, and efforts were made to measure landholdings and fix the amount payable by each cultivator to the state.
- Military reforms: Mahmud Gawan organised the army on systematic lines — raising salaries and improving facilities for soldiers while enforcing strict discipline. The military authority previously held by jagirdars was withdrawn and centralised under the Sultan, bringing new efficiency and vigour to the army.
- He successfully curbed the mutual jealousies between the rival noble factions of the Dakhani and Iranian Amirs; though himself Persian, he showed no favour to his own group, keeping both under firm control.
- To improve agriculture, he undertook various irrigation projects and abolished several vexatious taxes that weighed heavily on the peasantry.
- He placed state finances on a sound footing, understanding their importance to good governance, and achieved considerable savings through economy and the elimination of wasteful expenditure — restoring peace and order to the kingdom in the process.
- Patron of the arts: Mahmud Gawan built a magnificent madrasa (college) at the capital, Bidar — a three-storeyed building adorned with coloured tiles, with accommodation for a thousand teachers and students who received free food and clothing. Some of the era’s most eminent scholars from Iran and Iraq were drawn to this madrasa at his invitation.
Downfall and Death of Mahmud Gawan
- Strife among the nobles — divided between old-comers (Deccanis) and newcomers (Afaqis) — remained one of the most persistent problems facing the Bahmani kingdom. As a newcomer himself, Mahmud Gawan struggled to win the full confidence of the Deccanis, and despite adopting a broad policy of conciliation, the factional strife could not be contained.
- His opponents eventually poisoned the ear of the young Sultan, who had him executed in 1482, when Mahmud Gawan was over 70 years old.
- Fragmentation of the kingdom: With his death, factional strife intensified further, and provincial governors began asserting independence. The Bahmani kingdom soon splintered into five successor principalities: Golconda, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Bidar. Of these, Ahmadnagar, Bijapur, and Golconda played a leading role in Deccan politics until their eventual absorption into the Mughal Empire in the 17th century.
Legacy of the Bahmani Kingdom
- The Bahmani kingdom served as a cultural bridge between north and south India, while also cultivating close ties with leading West Asian powers such as Iran and Turkey.
- The distinct Indo-Islamic culture that developed under Bahmani patronage — blending Persian, Turkish, and Arab influences with local Deccani traditions — had features quite distinct from those of north India. These cultural traditions were carried forward by the successor Deccan Sultanates and also left their mark on the development of Mughal culture in later years.
- Architectural contributions: The Bahmani rulers left behind a lasting legacy of Indo-Persian architecture, seen in structures such as the Jama Masjid at Gulbarga, Ahmad Shah’s tomb at Bidar, Mahmud Gawan’s madrasa at Bidar, and the fort at Daulatabad and Golconda — laying the architectural foundations later built upon by the successor Sultanates (as seen, for instance, in monuments like the Charminar at Hyderabad, built by the Qutb Shahis of Golconda).
- Causes of decline: The kingdom’s eventual disintegration is generally attributed to a combination of factors — persistent factional rivalry between the Deccani and Afaqi nobles, the destabilising effect of Mahmud Gawan’s execution, weak and often minor successors, and the continual drain of resources from near-constant warfare with Vijayanagara and other neighbouring powers.
Bahmani Administrative System
- The Bahmani kingdom was founded by Alauddin Bahman Shah, also known as Hasan Gangu, in 1347, with its capital initially at Gulbarga (later shifted to Bidar by Ahmad Shah Wali). A total of fourteen sultans ruled over the kingdom in its two-hundred-year history, among whom Alauddin Bahman Shah, Muhammad Shah I, and Firuz Shah were particularly notable.
- Several aspects of Bahmani administration are known to us through the account of the foreign traveller Nicolò Conti.
Central Administration
- The Bahmani kingdom was headed by the Sultan, assisted by the following principal offices at the centre:
- Wazir or Wakil-us-Sultanate — issued all royal orders, functioning much like a prime minister.
- Amir-ul-Umra — head of the military office (mentioned by Nicolò Conti).
- Bakshi — commander of the army.
- Sadar-i-Jahan — head of the judiciary.
- Al-Qazi — judicial officer.
- Wazir-i-Ashraf — head of external affairs.
- Qilladar — in charge of forts.
- Peshwa — an office whose exact duties remain unclear, probably heading a Council of Eight Ministers instituted by the Bahmani king.
Provincial Administration
- Muhammad bin Tughlaq had earlier divided his Deccan territories into four provinces (tarafs); Bahman Shah retained this arrangement, appointing his own officers throughout. The kingdom was thus divided into four tarafs, with capitals at Daulatabad, Berar, Bidar, and Gulbarga. When Mahmud Gawan served as prime minister, this number was raised from four to eight.
- Tarafdars (provincial governors), wielding extensive administrative and military powers, were appointed to each province. A tarafdar collected revenue from his province, organised its provincial army, and appointed its civil and military officers; tarafdars were sometimes also appointed as ministers of the king — Mahmud Gawan, for instance, was wakil-us-sultanat as well as tarafdar of Bijapur.
- Mahmud Gawan’s reforms curbed the power of the tarafdars:
- He reserved certain lands as the Sultan’s own (khalisa) in each province, managed directly by central government officers.
- He restricted tarafdars’ authority over forts by bringing most forts and their commanders under direct central control, leaving each tarafdar in charge of only one fort within his province.
- He instituted an annual royal tour to inspect the tarafs, along with the regular transfer of tarafdars.
- The salaries and obligations of each noble were fixed, payable in cash or through a jagir assignment.
- Efforts were made to measure landholdings and fix the amount payable by each cultivator to the state, with Gawan promoting revenue assignment based on land measurement.
- He sought to accommodate both Dakhnis and Afaqis within the nobility by granting them important assignments.
- The inam system, granting land to religious and learned persons, was also prevalent in the Bahmani kingdom.
- For administrative convenience, tarafs were further divided into sarkars, and sarkars into parganas.
Local Administration
- At the pargana level, the institution of the Got Sabha/Majlis functioned as an autonomous body, exercising administrative, fiscal, and judicial functions, and managing local affairs.
- The village formed the lowest unit of administration, governed through the Balutedari system:
- Balutedars were village service-providers and artisans — including barbers, potters, blacksmiths, washermen, and carpenters — numbering twelve in total, with their occupations passed on hereditarily.
- Village elites, such as the Patil (village headman) and Kulkarni (village accountant), oversaw local administration.
Military Administration
Much of what is known about Bahmani military administration comes from Nicolò Conti’s account:
- The Amir-ul-Umra served as commander of the army, which comprised soldiers, cavalry, elephants, and royal bodyguards.
- Silahdars were in charge of the king’s personal armoury, while Barbardars formed mobile troops.
- The Bahmani army made use of gunpowder.
- Under Mahmud Gawan’s reforms, one fort was placed under each tarafdar’s jurisdiction, with the remaining forts brought under central command; he also fixed standard maintenance rates for every 500 troopers kept by an officer.
