Palas: Polity and administration

The period following the death of Harsha in 647 CE was one of political confusion, and for nearly a century thereafter, Bengal was subject to much interference and disruption from its neighbours, both near and far. This article traces the rise of the Pala dynasty — its founding rulers, political history, administration, and its wide-ranging cultural and commercial contacts — an important regional power of early medieval India for UPSC History Optional aspirants.

• For a time, Lalitaditya, ruler of Kashmir, brought the Punjab under his control and even held Kanauj, which, since the days of Harsha, had been considered the symbol of sovereignty over North India — control of Kanauj also implied control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in trade and agriculture.
  • Lalitaditya even invaded Bengal (Gaud) and killed its reigning king, but his power waned with the rise of the Palas and the Gurjara-Pratiharas.

Founders and Political History

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Gopala

• The Pala empire was founded by Gopala, probably around 750 CE, when he was elected king by the notable men of the area to end the prevailing anarchy.
  • Gopala was not born into a high, let alone royal, family — his father was probably a soldier. He unified Bengal under his control and even brought Magadha (Bihar) under his rule.
• Gopala was succeeded in 770 CE by his son, Dharmapala, who ruled until 810 CE; the dynasty prospered further under Gopala’s successors, Dharmapala and Devapala.

Dharmapala

• Dharmapala’s reign was marked by a tripartite struggle between the Palas, the Pratiharas, and the Rashtrakutas for control of Kanauj and North India.
  • The Pratihara ruler advanced upon Gaud (Bengal), but before a decision could be reached, he was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruva and forced to seek refuge in the deserts of Rajasthan.
  • Dhruva then returned to the Deccan, leaving the field open for Dharmapala, who occupied Kanauj and held a grand darbar attended by vassal rulers from Punjab, eastern Rajasthan, and elsewhere.
• The rule of Dharmapala extended to the furthest limits of India in the northwest and, perhaps, included Malwa and Berar — implying that the rulers of these areas accepted his suzerainty.
  • Dharmapala could not, however, consolidate his power in North India: Pratihara power revived under Nagabhatta II, and Dharmapala, forced back, was defeated near Mongyr.
• Bihar and modern eastern Uttar Pradesh remained a bone of contention between the Palas and the Pratiharas; however, Bihar, in addition to Bengal, remained under Pala control for most of this time.

Devapala

• Failure in the north compelled the Pala rulers to turn their energies elsewhere. Devapala, son of Dharmapala, succeeded to the throne in 810 CE and ruled for 40 years, extending his control over Pragjyotishpur (Assam) and parts of Odisha.
  • Probably a part of modern Nepal was also brought under Pala suzerainty.
• Thus, for about a hundred years — from the middle of the 8th to the middle of the 9th century — the Pala rulers dominated eastern India, their control extending, for a time, up to Varanasi.

Sources on the Palas

Sulaiman’s Account

• The power of the Palas is attested to by the Arab merchant Sulaiman, who visited India in the middle of the 9th century and wrote an account of it.
  • He calls the Pala kingdom Ruhma (or Dharma, short for Dharmapala), noting that the Pala ruler was at war with his neighbours, the Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas, but that his troops were more numerous than those of his adversaries.
  • He records that it was customary for the Pala king to be accompanied by a force of 50,000 elephants, and that 10,000–15,000 men in his army were employed “in fulling and washing clothes.”
  • Even if these figures may be exaggerated, the Palas clearly commanded a large military force — though it remains unclear whether they maintained a large standing army, or whether their forces largely consisted of feudal levies.

Tibetan Chronicles

• Information about the Palas is also provided by Tibetan chronicles, though these were written only in the 17th century.
  • According to these, the Pala rulers were great patrons of Buddhist learning and religion.
  • The Nalanda university, famous across the eastern world, was revived by Dharmapala, who set apart 200 villages to meet its expenses; he also founded the Vikramasila university, located atop a hill on the banks of the Ganga in Magadha, amid pleasant surroundings.
  • The Palas built many viharas, home to a large number of Buddhist monks.
• The Pala rulers also maintained close cultural relations with Tibet.
  • The noted Buddhist scholars Santarakshita and Dipankara (called Atisa) were invited to Tibet, where they introduced a new form of Buddhism; as a result, many Tibetan Buddhists flocked to the universities of Nalanda and Vikramasila for study.

Religion, Culture, and Trade

• Although the Palas were supporters of Buddhism, they also extended patronage to Saivism and Vaishnavism.
  • They granted land to large numbers of Brahmans from North India who flocked to Bengal; their settlements helped extend cultivation in the area and transformed many pastoralists and food-gatherers into settled cultivators.
• The growing prosperity of Bengal helped extend trade and cultural contacts with countries of Southeast Asia — Burma, Malaya, Java, Sumatra, and others.
  • This trade with Southeast Asia was highly profitable, adding greatly to the prosperity of the Pala empire and leading to the inflow of gold and silver from these countries into Bengal.
• The powerful Sailendra dynasty, Buddhist in faith and ruling over Malaya, Java, Sumatra, and neighbouring islands, sent many embassies to the Pala court, seeking permission to build a monastery at Nalanda and requesting the Pala ruler Devapala to endow five villages for its upkeep.
  • The request was granted, testifying to the close relations between the two empires.

Rivalry over Madhyadesha and Decline

• The Palas recognised the importance of Madhyadesha in the Indian political sphere and fought hard to gain power and influence there.
  • Their main rivals were the Gurjara-Pratihara and the Rashtrakuta, though with the latter there were useful marriage alliances.
  • The Palas and the Pratiharas clashed over control of the area extending from Banaras to south Bihar, which likewise had rich resources and well-developed imperial traditions; the Pratiharas, in turn, clashed with the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan.
  • In this triangular contest over Madhyadesha and Kanauj, all three dynasties ultimately exhausted themselves.
• Over different periods, the Pala dynasty also ruled over Bihar, Odisha, and Assam — the Palas, under Dharmapala, extended their suzerainty into Assam.
  • The Bengal kingdom’s reputation reached beyond the boundaries of India, into Nepal and Tibet, and, above all, towards Southeast Asia — into Java, Sumatra, and the Malay Peninsula, ruled by the Shailendra dynasty.
• Pala suzerainty in Bengal and eastern India lasted until the end of the 11th century, when they were succeeded by the Senas, who, in turn, lost out to the Turkish Khaljis in the 13th century.

Administration

• The Palas inherited their administrative structure from the Guptas, though the Pala administrative system was practised far more efficiently.
  • The copper plates of the Palas attest to this efficient administrative system.
• The Pala system of administration was monarchical, with the king at the centre of all power.
  • Pala kings bore titles such as Parameshwar, Paramavattaraka, or Maharajadhiraja; the structure of Pala administration also included the appointment of prime ministers.
• The Pala Empire was divided into separate Vuktis (provinces).
  • These Vuktis were segmented into Vishaya (divisions), and further into Mandala (districts).
  • Other, smaller units included Khandala, Bhaga, Avritti, Chaturaka, and Pattaka.

Land Grants

• The Pala kings gave permanent land grants to Brahmans, priests, and temples, and also bestowed land grants on Buddhist monasteries.
  • These grants carried various economic and administrative privileges, and were specifically tied to the maintenance of law and order and the administration of justice.
• A Pala grant of 802 CE mentions an official in North Bengal called the Dasagramika, who was given one kula of land, as inferred from Manu.
  • Land grants were also given to Kaivartas, who were peasants.
• The Pala records (land charters) refer to rajas, Rajaputras, Ranakas, Rajarajanakas, Mahasamantas, and Mahasamantadhipatis — probably feudatories who were granted land in lieu of military service.
  • There is no evidence for sub-infeudation under the Palas.
• The Pala dynasty developed ferry ghats along the river routes, land routes, trade and commerce, towns and ports, while also skilfully managing law and order in the country.

State Officials

• The Pala system of government maintained a long record of state officials, including:
  • the Raja, or Mahasamanta (vassal kings);
  • the Mahasandhi-vigrahika (foreign minister);
  • the Duta (head ambassador);
  • the Rajasthaniya (deputy); and
  • the Sasthadhikrita (tax collector).
• Other important positions in the royal court included:
  • the Mahaksapatalika (accountant);
  • the Jyeshthakayastha (in charge of documents);
  • the Kshetrapa (head of land use division); and
  • the Pramatr (head of land measurements).
• The Pala administration also featured:
  • the Mahadandanayaka or Dharmadhikara (chief justice);
  • the Mahapratihara (police forces); and
  • the Khola (secret service).
• Agricultural posts were also allocated within society, including:
  • the Gavadhakshya (head of dairy farms);
  • the Chhagadhyakshya (head of goat farms);
  • the Meshadyakshya (head of sheep farms);
  • the Mahishadyakshya (head of buffalo farms); and
  • the Nakadhyakshya (aviation-related ministry).

Conclusion

The Pala dynasty, rising from the political vacuum left after Harsha’s death, built one of early medieval India’s most durable eastern empires — sustaining a long-running rivalry with the Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas over Kanauj and Madhyadesha, while cultivating a distinctive administrative apparatus inherited from the Guptas but refined into one of the era’s most efficient systems. Their patronage of Nalanda and Vikramasila, close cultural ties with Tibet, and thriving trade with Southeast Asia together mark the Palas as a civilisational bridge between South and Southeast Asia, making this dynasty an essential topic for UPSC History Optional preparation.