Rashtrakutas: Polity and administration

While the Palas and the Pratiharas ruled over North India, the Deccan was governed by the Rashtrakutas (755–975 CE), who had earlier been feudatories of the Chalukyas. This article traces the origins, political history, administration, society, and economy of the Rashtrakuta dynasty — a major power of peninsular India whose reach extended from the Ganga valley in the north to the Chola kingdom in the south, and an essential topic for UPSC History Optional aspirants.

Rashtrakutas (755–975 CE)

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• Dantidurga was the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty, with his capital at Manyakheta.
  • He defeated the Gurjaras and captured Malwa from them, then annexed the Chalukya kingdom by defeating Kirtivarman II — thus making the Rashtrakutas the paramount power in the Deccan.
• Geographically, the Rashtrakuta kingdom was located near the middle of India, along the top of the Deccan Plateau, dominating the entire area of northern Maharashtra — a position that afforded many opportunities for expansion.
  • The Rashtrakutas took advantage of this, frequently interfering with both the northern and southern kingdoms of India.
  • The northern kingdoms were particularly easy to prey on, as no power there was strong enough to effectively repel the Rashtrakutas; although their raids did not extend the Rashtrakuta empire to the Ganga valley, they brought rich plunder and added to Rashtrakuta fame.
• They engaged with the Pratiharas for overlordship of Gujarat and Malwa, and fought constantly against the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi (in modern Andhra Pradesh), as well as, in the south, against the Pallavas of Kanchi and the Pandyas of Madurai.
• The Rashtrakutas also controlled large portions of the western coast of India.
  • Most trade with West Asia passed through these ports, bringing much of the Rashtrakutas’ wealth with it; tea and cotton textiles were exported, while horses were imported and sold further inland.
  • The Rashtrakutas also maintained good relations with the Arabs in Sind, trading extensively with them.
• By the end of the 10th century, the geographical advantages the Rashtrakutas had enjoyed turned into disadvantages, as new powers emerged in both the north and south.
  • In the south, the Cholas were becoming the dominant kingdom, while the Chalukya dynasty — whom the Rashtrakutas had originally overthrown — was regaining much of its former power and territory; facing this new southern threat, the Rashtrakutas were unable to prevent the Cholas from recovering their northern territories.
  • Alongside these threats came the rise of the Shilaharas in the northwestern Deccan, who took over much of the western coast and its port cities.
• In the end, the Rashtrakuta dynasty was overthrown by the Chalukyas, from whom Dantidurga had claimed independence hundreds of years earlier.

Origin of the Rashtrakutas

Several theories have been put forward to explain the origin of the Rashtrakutas.

• Descent from the Yadava family: It is said that the Rashtrakutas were indigenous people of the country claiming descent from the sacred Yadava family of epic fame, especially given their predominance in the Gujarat and Deccan regions.
  • Of the 75 inscriptions and copper grants of the Rashtrakutas of Deccan and Gujarat discovered so far, only eight mention any connection between the Rashtrakutas and the Yadavas.
  • A copper grant dated 914 CE states that Dantidurga was born in the line of Yadava Satyaki; the book Kavirahasya by Halayudha likewise mentions the Rashtrakutas as descendants of Yadava Satyaki.
• Another opinion: Rashtrakuta was originally a title given to governors of provinces by the Chalukya kings, meaning “head of the region.” Since it was one such governor who established an independent kingdom, the dynasty itself came to be called the Rashtrakutas.
  • On becoming more powerful, they also assumed the title Prithvi Vallabha, with “Vallabha” transliterated into “Balharas” in the Arab chronicles of the time.
• Tribes of Punjab: The earliest reference to the Rashtrakutas is found in the edicts of Ashoka Maurya, as Rashtrika and Rathika, terms used to refer to a tribe of the northwestern regions.
  • It has been suggested that Rashtrika refers to the same tribe as the Arattas of Punjab, mentioned in the Mahabharata and also in accounts of Alexander’s invasion of Gandhara.
  • The historian C.V. Vaidya held that the Rashtrakutas were initially settlers of Punjab who migrated south, carved out a kingdom in the Deccan, and gradually became the Kshatriyas of Maharashtra.
• Kanarese origin:Dr. A.S. Altekar pointed out that the Rashtrakutas originally lived in the Karnataka country, their mother tongue being Kanarese, and that they used the Kanarese script.
  • Several inscriptions describe them as “Lord of Lattura” — a place identified with Latur, in Bidar, in modern Karnataka.

Sources of Information

• Numerous inscriptions spread across the Deccan, written in Sanskrit, the Kannada language, and stone records, form a key source of information.
• Literary sources include:
  • ancient literature in Pali;
  • contemporary Kannada literature such as the Kavirajamarga (850 CE) and the Vikramarjuna Vijaya (941 CE);
  • Sanskrit writings by Somadeva, Rajashekara, Gunabhadra, Jinasena, and others; and
  • the notes of Arab travellers of the time, such as Suleiman, Ibn Haukal, Al Masudi, and Al Istakhri.

Political History of the Rashtrakutas

• The power of the Rashtrakuta dynasty grew under the reign of Dantidurga, the son and successor of Indra.
• His successor, Krishna I, was also a great conqueror, defeating the Gangas and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
  • He built the magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora.
• The next important king of the dynasty was Govinda III.

Govinda III (793–814)

• Govinda III achieved victories over several north Indian kingdoms.
  • After a successful expedition against Nagabhatta of Kanauj and the annexation of Malwa, Govinda returned to the south.
• As per an inscription, Govinda terrified the Kerala, Pandya, and Chola kings, and caused the Pallavas to “wither”; the Ganga (of Karnataka) met with death.
  • The king of Lanka and his minister were captured and brought as prisoners to Halapur; two statues of the lord of Lanka were carried to Manyakhet, where they were installed like pillars of victory in front of a Shiva temple.

Amoghavarsha (814–878)

• Amoghavarsha ruled for 64 years, though by temperament he preferred the pursuit of religion and literature to war.
  • A patron of letters, he is himself credited with writing the first Kannada book on poetics, the Kavirajamarga.
  • A follower of Jainism, his chief preceptor was Jinasena.
• He was a great builder, said to have built the capital city Manyakhet, though he lost control over Malwa and Gangavadi.
  • There were many rebellions across the far-flung Rashtrakuta empire under Amoghavarsha; these could barely be contained and resumed afresh after his death.

Indra III (915–927)

• Amoghavarsha’s grandson, Indra III, re-established the empire — after defeating Mahipala and sacking Kanauj in 915 CE, he became the most powerful ruler of his time.
• According to al-Masudi, who visited India at that time, the Rashtrakuta king, called Balhara or Vallabharaja, was the greatest king of India, with most Indian rulers accepting his suzerainty and respecting his envoys; he possessed large armies and innumerable elephants.

Krishna III (934–963)

• Krishna III was the last in a line of brilliant Rashtrakuta rulers, famous for his military expeditions.
  • He was engaged in a struggle against the Paramaras of Malwa and the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, and also launched a campaign against the Chola ruler of Tanjore, who had supplanted the Pallavas of Kanchi.
• Krishna III defeated the Chola king Parantaka I (949 CE) and annexed the northern part of the Chola empire.
  • He then pressed on to Rameshwaram, where he set up a pillar of victory and built a temple; he built several temples in the conquered territories, including the Krishneswara temple at Rameswaram.
  • Throughout his reign, he held the Tondaimandalam region, including the capital Kanchi.
• After his death, all his opponents united against his successor, and the Rashtrakuta capital, Malkhed, was sacked and burnt in 972 CE, marking the end of the Rashtrakuta empire.
  • Rashtrakuta rule in the Deccan thus lasted for almost two hundred years, until the end of the 10th century.

Administration

Rashtras

• The Rashtrakuta empire, under the direct rule of the monarch, was divided into several provinces called rashtras, under the control of rashtrapatis.
  • The rashtrapati exercised both civil and military jurisdiction over the rashtra, maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, and keeping records of accounts.

Vishayas

• Rashtras were further divided into vishayas, or districts, governed by vishayapatis.

Bhukti

• The next subdivision was the bhukti, consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the control of bhogapatis.
  • These officers were directly appointed by the central government.

Village Administration

• Village administration was carried on by village headmen.
  • However, village assemblies (councils) also played a significant role in local administration, with households represented in these councils.

The King

• The king was the sovereign and fountain of all power, bearing high-sounding titles such as Parameshvara, Paramabhattaraka, and Maharajadhiraja to add to his dignity.
  • He lived in extraordinary pomp and grandeur, with the Rashtrakuta court marked by impressive ceremonies and etiquette; in court, the king was attended by ministers, officers, vassals, generals, poets, and others.
• Kingship was hereditary, usually passing from father to eldest son, the latter being called the Yuvaraja; in special cases, younger sons were selected as heir to the throne.

Ministers

• The actual work of administration was carried out by ministers, with persons of proven efficiency appointed to these posts.
  • Some officers were appointed to tour the empire on inspection and keep watch over the vassals.

Vassals

• The emperor established direct rule over part of the empire, while the rest was governed by vassals.
  • Powerful vassals enjoyed complete autonomy in their internal administration and could even make land grants without seeking the suzerain’s consent.
  • Vassals attended court when summoned by the emperor, and sometimes accompanied the king on military campaigns.

Army

• The Rashtrakutas maintained a vast army, with a greater part always stationed at the capital for security.
  • This standing army was employed for both defensive and offensive purposes, supplemented, when necessary, by the armies of provincial governors and feudatories.

Revenue

• State revenue was mainly derived from tributes paid by vassals, along with income from mines, forests, and wasteland.
  • Land tax, called Udranga or Bhagakara — the king’s share — normally amounted to one-quarter of the gross produce.
  • Lands granted to Brahmins and temples were not exempt from taxation, though the tax on such lands was low; if the state was struck by natural disasters such as drought or famine, taxes were not levied.

Coins

• The Rashtrakutas maintained a system of coinage, with five kinds of coins — Drama, Suvarna, Godhyanka, Kalanju, and Kasu.
  • Some gold coins were also issued by Rashtrakuta emperors.

Society

• The Dharmasastras and the accounts of Arab writers help form a picture of society and economic conditions during this period.
• There were a number of social groups: among the four varnas, the Brahmans enjoyed superior status, though in actual practice, the privileges of the Kshatriyas were no less than those of the Brahmans.
  • The status of the Vaishyas had degenerated considerably.
  • This period witnessed an improvement in the position of the Sudras: the Bhakti movements led by the Nayanars and Alvars, which preached the equal footing of all men, narrowed the gulf between high and low castes.
  • The untouchables, however, had come to be excluded from mainstream life.
• The joint family system was the order of the day. Widows and daughters were recognised as heirs to property, while the sati system was not popular in the Deccan, and child marriage had become common in society.
• The Hindu sects of Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished during the Rashtrakuta period.
  • Yet this did not affect the progress of Jainism, which continued to receive patronage from Rashtrakuta kings and officers.
  • There were some prosperous Buddhist settlements at places like Kanheri, Sholapur, and Dharwar — there was general harmony among various religions.
• There was a college at Salatogi, situated in the modern Bijapur district, described in detail by an inscription.
  • It was funded by the income from endowments made by the rich, as well as by all the villagers on occasions of functions and festivals.

Economy

• The economy was also in a flourishing condition.
  • Agriculture continued to receive government attention as before, but this period also saw much progress in mining and industry.
• The textile industry made considerable progress: cloth was manufactured in sufficient quantity to meet internal demand, with a large surplus left over for export.
  • Muslins, hides, mats, indigo, incense, sandalwood, teakwood, and ivory were the main articles of export.
  • Among the articles of import were gold, wine, copper, tin, lead, and topaz.
• Commercial transactions were carried out either through barter or through the exchange of gold and silver.
  • Trade and industries were organised into their respective guilds, which regulated trade and industry and also conducted banking business.
• Foreign trade was likely handled by Arab merchants, who by this time had become intermediaries in India’s overseas trade.
  • There was active commerce between the Deccan and the Arabs, and Rashtrakuta kings promoted this trade by maintaining friendly relations with them.

Conclusion

The Rashtrakuta dynasty, rising from obscure feudatory origins to become the paramount power of the Deccan, built an empire whose military reach extended from Kanauj in the north to Rameshwaram in the south, while its administration, economy, and society reflected both continuity with earlier traditions and genuine regional distinctiveness. From the rock-cut grandeur of the Kailasa temple at Ellora to its thriving Arab trade and religious pluralism, the Rashtrakuta legacy makes this dynasty a cornerstone of early medieval Deccan history for UPSC History Optional preparation.