Chalukyas of Kalyani (Western Chalukyas)

Chalukyas of Kalyani (Western Chalukyas)

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The Chalukyas of Kalyani, also known as the Western Chalukyas, revived Chalukya authority in the Deccan after the decline of the Rashtrakutas, ruling from their capital at Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) for over two centuries. For UPSC History Optional aspirants, this dynasty is significant for its prolonged struggle with the Chola dynasty over the fertile Vengi region, its transitional temple architecture linking the Chalukyas of Badami with the Hoysalas, and its substantial contribution to Kannada and Sanskrit literature, including works such as the Mitakshara and the Manasollasa. This article traces the origin, political history, administration, social life, economy, religion, literature, art, and architecture of the Chalukyas of Kalyani — an important theme in the medieval Deccan segment of the History Optional syllabus.

Origin and Rise of the Chalukyas of Kalyani

• The Rashtrakutas eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami in the middle of the 8th century, and the Rashtrakuta empire of Manyakheta went on to control most of the Deccan and Central India for over two centuries.
• In the late 10th century, taking advantage of the confusion within the Rashtrakuta empire, the descendants of the Chalukyas of Badami quickly rose to power and grew into an empire under Someshvara I, who moved the capital to Kalyani.
  • This claim of descent from the Chalukyas of Badami is made by the Chalukyas of Kalyani themselves, but the actual origin of the family remains debatable.
  • After a close study of the available evidence, B.R. Gopal held the view that the Chalukyas were an indigenous Kannada family with an agricultural and military background who had settled in and around the Badami region; he further considers the word Chalukya to be an archaic Kannada term.
• The founder of the Chalukyas of Kalyani line was Tailapa II, originally a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III.
  • He became strong enough within a few years of Krishna III’s death to overthrow Karka II and establish himself as an independent monarch, starting his reign in AD 973.
  • He ruled for 24 years, from AD 973 to 997, and is credited with victories over Chedi, Orissa, and Kuntala.
  • He is also said to have killed Munja, the Paramara ruler of Malwa.
• These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani until the end of the 12th century; the dynasty is termed “Western” to distinguish it from the contemporaneous Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, a separate dynasty.
  • This dynasty played a dominant role in the politics of the Deccan and South India for two centuries, from AD 973 to 1200.
• For over a century, the two great empires of Southern India — the Western Chalukyas and the Chola dynasty of Tanjore — fought many fierce wars to control the fertile region of Vengi.
  • During these conflicts, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi — distant cousins of the Western Chalukyas but related to the Cholas by marriage — sided with the Cholas, further complicating the situation.
• M.K.L.N. Sastry states that the Chalukyas of Kalyani followed the imperial traditions of the Vatapi Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, and that their period of more than two hundred years was one of cultural efflorescence for Karnataka.
• Sources for reconstructing the history and culture of the Kalyani Chalukyas include innumerable lithic records and copper plates, along with literary texts such as the Vikramankadevacharita, Manasollasa, and Vikramankabhyudaya of Someshvara III, the Mitakshara of Vignaneswara, Merutunga’s Prabandhachintamani, and Ranna’s Gadayuddha and Ajitapurana.

A Brief History of the Chalukyas of Kalyani

• Tailapa II was succeeded by his son Satyasraya, who claims to have won a victory over a Chola invader.
  • Satyasraya was followed in succession by Vikramaditya V, Jayasimha I, and Jagadekamalla, the last of whom claims to have defeated Paramara Bhoja (ruler of Malwa), the ruler of Chedi, and Rajendra of the Chola line.
• Jagadekamalla was followed by Someshvara I, who ruled from AD 1042 to 1068 with the titles Ahavamalla and Trailokyamalla.
  • Bilhana, in his Vikramankadevacharita, states that Someshvara I built the city of Kalyana and made it his capital, though V. Venkataraya Sastry holds that Kalyana already existed during the reign of Jayasimha II and was one of his Skandhavaras (military camps).
  • Since Sankaracharya, in his Soundaryalahari, mentions Kalyana as a great Devipitha, it can be safely surmised that Someshvara I fortified Kalyana and shifted his capital there in the interest of greater safety from invaders.
  • Someshvara I continued the struggle with the contemporary Chola power: while the Chalukyas claimed victory over the Cholas, the Cholas stoutly denied it, and Chola epigraphs instead claim that Someshvara I was defeated at Koppam in AD 1055 and again at Kudalasangamam in AD 1061.
  • It appears that Dharavarsha, the Nagavamsi ruler of Chakrakuta, accepted his supremacy, and the territories of Kosala and Kalinga were occupied by him.
• After Someshvara I, his son Someshvara II became ruler with the title Bhuvanaikamalla and ruled until AD 1076.
  • From Bilhana, we know that Someshvara I had wanted to make his second son Vikramaditya his successor, but after Vikramaditya refused the offer, Someshvara II was made ruler instead.
  • Relations between the brothers subsequently strained as Someshvara II took to evil ways; a civil war broke out, and Vikramaditya emerged victorious to become the ruler.
• Vikramaditya VI had held the title Tribhuvanamalla from AD 1071, even before he assumed sovereignty, and ruled from AD 1076 to 1126.
  • He started a new era, the Chalukya Vikrama era, and continued wars against the Cholas.
  • Under Vikramaditya VI, the Western Chalukyas convincingly contended with the Cholas and reached their peak, ruling territories that spread over most of the Deccan, between the Narmada River in the north and the Kaveri River in the south.
    • His exploits were not confined to the south — even as a prince, during the rule of Someshvara I, he had led successful military campaigns as far east as modern Bihar and Bengal.
  • K.A.N. Sastri argues that both Vikramaditya VI and his Chola contemporary realised their parity in strength and the futility of continued hostilities, and so suspended raids into each other’s territories.
    • This view is only partially correct, as Vikramaditya continued his designs against Vengi, while also having to suppress the rebellious ambitions of his subordinates Ballala I and Bittiga Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysalas.
    • After a protracted battle with the Hoysalas, Vikramaditya succeeded in subduing them and made them submissive to him.
  • Along with subjugating the Hoysalas, Vikramaditya renewed hostilities against Vengi, and by AD 1118 or 1119, his general Anatapala Dandanayaka gained control over Vengi; for all practical purposes, Chola power disappeared from the rest of Andhra as well.
  • Vikramaditya VI patronised Bilhana and Vignaneswara.
• Vikramaditya VI was followed by his son Someshvara III, who ruled from AD 1126 to 1135 with the titles Bhulokamalla and Sarvajna Chakravarti, and who also started a new era named the Bhulokamalla era.
  • He appears to have been a peace-loving ruler and was the author of the Manasollasa and Vikramankabhyudaya in Kannada.
• Someshvara III was succeeded by Jagadekamalla II, who ruled from AD 1135 to 1151, followed by his son Tailapa III, who ruled from AD 1151 to 1163.
  • As Tailapa III was a weak and incompetent ruler, the Kalachuri chieftain Bijjala gradually usurped power by AD 1157, and Tailapa III died fighting the Kakatiyas.
• Someshvara IV, son of Tailapa III, ascended the Chalukya throne but failed to safeguard Chalukyan power; he was defeated in AD 1190 by the Hoysala Ballala II, bringing an end to the Western Chalukyan power of Kalyani.
  • The death of Vikramaditya VI had already marked the beginning of the dynasty’s decline, as subordinate powers — the Kakatiyas of Warangal, the Yadavas of Devagiri, the Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra, and the Kalachuris — took advantage of the weakness of later rulers and prepared to declare independence.
  • The Chalukyas of Kalyani thus disappeared from the arena of political power by AD 1190, during the reign of Someshvara IV.

Polity and Administration of the Chalukyas of Kalyani

• The Chalukyas of Kalyani followed a hereditary monarchical form of government, with the king as head of state wielding effective power.
  • They bore the titles Samastabhuvanasraya and Vijayaditya, and their royal insignia was a boar, signifying the Varahavatara of Lord Vishnu, protector of the earth.
• Interestingly, Chalukyan queens and other family members actively participated in the administrative process.
  • Queen Lakshmidevi, wife of Vikramaditya VI, claimed in an epigraph to be ruling from Kalyana.
  • There is further evidence of Lachchala Mahadevi, wife of Someshvara I, and Ketaladevi, another queen of Someshvara I, participating in administration.
• The Manasollasa prescribes the qualities expected of ministers — mostly hereditary posts — and recommends that their number be 7 or 8.
• There is a view that Western Chalukyan polity had elements of feudalism, given the existence of graded political intermediaries such as Samanta, Mahasamanta, Mahasamantadhipati, and Mahamandalesvara, alongside military officials like Senapati, Dandanayaka, Mahadandanayaka, and Meghaprachandadandanayaka.
• For administrative convenience, the territory was divided into Rashtra, Vishaya, Nadu, Kampana, and Thana.
  • There is no clear-cut demarcation between Rashtra, Vishaya, and Nadu, except that Vishaya and Nadu were considered smaller units than Rashtra.
• Copper plate charters recording important transactions were addressed to all Rastrapatis, Vishayapatis, Gramakutakas, Ayuktakas, Niyuktakas, Adhikarikas, Mohattaras, and others — indicating that channels of communication between ruler and ruled were collective in nature.

Social Life under the Chalukyas of Kalyani

• Social life during the rule of the Chalukyas of Kalyani was believed to be based on the traditional Varnashrama model; though caste was universal and hereditary, the connection between caste and occupation was not rigid.
• Women of the higher strata of society played an important role in social and administrative matters.
  • S.L. Shantakumari writes that epigraphical records of this period reveal the names of numerous women — not only from royal families but also those lower in rank — who distinguished themselves in administration, religion, and the social and cultural life of the period.
  • Contemporary records indicate some royal women were involved in administrative and martial affairs, such as princess Akkadevi (sister of King Jayasimha II), who fought and defeated rebellious feudatories.
  • Records also describe women’s participation in the fine arts, such as the skill of Chalukya queen Chandala Devi and Kalachuri queen Sovala Devi in dance and music.
  • The compositions of thirty Vachana women poets included the work of the 12th-century Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi, whose devotion to the bhakti movement is well known.
• The rise of Veerashaivism was revolutionary and challenged the prevailing Hindu caste system, even while retaining royal support.
• Inscriptions emphasise public acceptance of widowhood, indicating that Sati, though present, was practised on a voluntary basis.
• Regarding eating habits, Brahmins, Jains, Buddhists, and Shaivas were strictly vegetarian, while the partaking of various kinds of meat was popular among other communities.
• People found indoor amusement in wrestling matches (Kusti), watching animal contests such as cock fights and ram fights, or gambling; horse racing was a popular outdoor pastime.
  • Festivals and fairs were frequent, and entertainment was often provided by traveling troupes of acrobats, dancers, dramatists, and musicians.
• Schools and hospitals, mentioned in records, were built in the vicinity of temples; young men were trained to sing in choirs at schools attached to monasteries such as Hindu Matha, Jain Palli, and Buddhist Vihara.
  • Learning was imparted in the local language and in Sanskrit; schools of higher learning were called Brahmapuri (or Ghatika or Agrahara), and teaching Sanskrit was a near-monopoly of Brahmins, who received royal endowments for the purpose.
  • Inscriptions record that the number of subjects taught varied from four to eighteen, the four most popular among royal students being Economics (Vartta), Political Science (Dandaniti), Veda (trayi), and Philosophy (Anvikshiki).

Economy of the Chalukyas of Kalyani

• Trade, commerce, and agriculture formed the backbone of the Chalukyan economy.

Agriculture

• The majority of people were engaged in agriculture; rulers encouraged agricultural operations by providing irrigation facilities such as the excavation of tanks and construction of irrigation canals, which increased the fertility of the soil — a fact attested by numerous epigraphs.
• Epigraphs classify cultivated land into wet land, dry land, and garden land, with tax collected from agriculturalists varying from area to area rather than being uniform.
  • An inscription from Kolhipaikkai records that lands were classified as Uttama, Madhyama, and Adhama, with villages similarly classified on the basis of fertility and yield.
• There existed private ownership of land alongside joint ownership in villages; epigraphs reveal that economic disparities among different sections of the populace were noticeable.
  • The living conditions of labourers who farmed the land must have been bearable, as there are no records of revolts by the landless against wealthy landlords.
  • If peasants were disgruntled, the common practice was to migrate in large numbers out of the jurisdiction of the offending ruler, thereby depriving him of revenue from their labour.

Trade

• Traders were organised into a number of autonomous guilds, each with its own traditions, insignia, and Prasasti.
  • The most celebrated of these merchant guilds was the 500 Swamis of Ayyavolepura, who claimed to be protectors of Vira Bananjadharama — the law of the noble merchants.
  • G.S. Dikshit holds that the period of the Chalukyas of Kalyana was the heyday of the guilds, much as it was during the reign of their rivals, the Cholas.
• The most important guild — known as Ayyavola, Ainurruvar, Virabalanja, Valanjiyar, or Nanadesi — had its origin in Aihole in Bijapur district.
  • This guild was very active across Tamil Nadu, coastal Andhra, Rayalseema, Telangana, and Kerala, and carried on overseas activities in Burma, Malaya, and Sumatra.
  • The growth of trade and commerce led to the growth of market towns across all these regions.

Religion under the Chalukyas of Kalyani

• The religious atmosphere of this period was one of spiritual conciliation, in which many creeds coexisted on a basis of mutual tolerance.
• The fall of the Rashtrakuta empire to the Western Chalukyas in the 10th century, coinciding with the defeat of the Western Ganga dynasty by the Cholas in Gangavadi, was a setback to Jainism.
  • Two centres of Jain worship in Hoysala territory continued to be patronised — Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.
  • The growth of Virashaivism in Chalukya territory and Vaishnava Hinduism in the Hoysala region paralleled a general decline in interest in Jainism, although the succeeding kingdoms remained religiously tolerant.
• Although the origin of the Virashaiva faith is debated, the movement grew through its association with Basavanna in the 12th century.
  • Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached a faith without a caste system; in his Vachanas (a form of poetry), Basavanna appealed to the masses in simple Kannada, writing “work is worship” (Kayakave Kailasa).
  • Also known as the Lingayats (worshippers of the Linga, the universal symbol of Shiva), the Virashaivas questioned established norms such as belief in rituals and the theory of rebirth, and supported the remarriage of widows as well as the marriage of unwed older women.
    • This gave women greater social freedom, though they were still not accepted into the priesthood.
  • The esteemed Hoysala court scholars Harihara and Raghavanka were Virashaivas.
• Saivism and Vaishnavism were the major branches of Pauranic Dharma within present-day Hinduism.
  • Sakti was worshipped as Kollapura Mahalakshmi, and Kartikeya was also worshipped, with Kudidatani in Bellary district as the main centre of his worship.
• Ramanujacharya, head of the Vaishnava monastery at Srirangam, travelled to Hoysala territory and preached the path of devotion (bhakti marga).
  • He wrote the Sribhashya, a commentary on the Badarayana Brahmasutra that critiqued the Advaita philosophy of Adi Shankara.
  • His stay in Melkote resulted in the Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana converting to Vaishnavism, a faith his successors also followed.
• The impact of these religious developments on the culture, literature, and architecture of South India was profound, inspiring important works of metaphysics and poetry over the following centuries.
  • Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, and a host of Basavanna’s followers — including Chenna Basava, Prabhudeva, Siddharama, and Kondaguli Kesiraja — wrote hundreds of Vachanas in praise of Lord Shiva.
• The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara’s Advaita philosophy; however, Buddhism continued to flourish at Belagave and Dambal.
• There is no mention of religious conflict in the writings and inscriptions of the time, suggesting that the religious transition was smooth.

Literature of the Chalukyas of Kalyani

• The Western Chalukya era saw substantial literary activity in both native Kannada and Sanskrit.
  • In this golden age of Kannada literature, Jain scholars wrote about the lives of the Tirthankaras, while Virashaiva poets expressed their closeness to God through pithy poems called Vachanas; nearly three hundred contemporary Vachanakaras (Vachana poets), including thirty women poets, have been recorded.
  • Early works by Brahmin writers dealt with the epics — the Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata, Puranas, and Vedas. In the field of secular literature, subjects such as romance, erotics, medicine, lexicon, mathematics, astrology, and encyclopedic works were written for the first time.
• The most notable Kannada scholars were Ranna, grammarian Nagavarma II, minister Durgasimha, and the Virashaiva saint and social reformer Basavanna.
  • Ranna, patronised by kings Tailapa II and Satyasraya, is regarded as one of the “three gems of Kannada literature” and was bestowed the title “Emperor among poets” (Kavi Chakravarthi) by Tailapa II; he has five major works to his credit.
    • Of these, Saahasabheema Vijayam (or Gadayuddha) of 982, in Champu style, eulogises his patron King Satyasraya — comparing him to Bhima in valour — and narrates the club duel between Bhima and Duryodhana on the eighteenth day of the Mahabharata war.
    • He also wrote the Ajitha Purana in 993, describing the life of the second Tirthankara, Ajitanatha.
  • Nagavarma II, poet laureate (Katakacharya) of King Jagadekamalla II, made wide-ranging contributions to Kannada literature; his works on poetry, prosody, grammar, and vocabulary are standard authorities, well acknowledged for their importance to the study of the Kannada language.
    • These include the Kavyavalokana on poetics, Karnataka-Bhashabhushana on grammar, and the Vastukosa, a lexicon giving Kannada equivalents for Sanskrit words.
  • Several works on medicine were also produced, notably Jagaddala Somanatha’s Karnataka Kalyana Karaka.
  • A unique and native form of poetic literature in Kannada, the Vachanas, developed during this time, written by mystics who expressed their devotion to God in simple poems appealing to the masses; Basavanna, Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu, Channabasavanna, and Siddharama are the best known among them.
• In Sanskrit, the well-known Mahakavya in eighteen cantos, the Vikramankadeva Charita, by the Kashmiri poet Bilhana, recounts in epic style the life and achievements of his patron king Vikramaditya VI, including the episode of Vikramaditya VI’s accession to the throne after overthrowing his elder brother Someshvara II.
  • The Manasollasa (or Abhilashitartha Chintamani) by king Someshvara III (1129) was a Sanskrit work intended for all sections of society — an early example of an encyclopedia covering subjects such as medicine, magic, veterinary science, the valuing of precious stones and pearls, fortifications, painting, music, games, and amusements.
  • Someshvara III also authored a biography of his father, Vikramaditya VI, called the Vikramankabhyudaya — a historical prose narrative that includes a vivid description of the geography and people of Karnataka.
  • The Sanskrit scholar Vijnaneshwara, at the court of Vikramaditya VI, became famous in the field of legal literature for his Mitakshara — perhaps the most acknowledged work in that field, a treatise on law (a commentary on Yajnavalkya) based on earlier writings, which has found acceptance across most of modern India.
  • Important literary works on music and musical instruments from this period include the Sangita Chudamani, Sangita Samayasara, and Sangita Ratnakara.

Art under the Chalukyas of Kalyani

• The Chalukyas of Kalyani were patrons of the fine arts.
  • An epigraph dated AD 1045 refers to the construction of a Natakasala (theatre) within the premises of a Jaina temple.
  • Epigraphic references record grants given for the maintenance of flutists, songsters, florists, drummers, and dancers.
• On the basis of epigraphical evidence, K.A.N. Sastri holds that, next to the court, the temple was the great promoter of the fine arts — architecture, sculpture in stone and metal, and painting were all promoted through temples.
  • An inscription dated AD 1085 from Nagai refers to a great sculptor, Nagoja, styled Kandarana Vidyadhirajam (“master of the art of engraving”), along with references to other sculptors and engravings.

Architecture of the Chalukyas of Kalyani

Temples

• The reign of the Western Chalukya dynasty was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture.
  • The dynasty developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, forming a link between the style of the early Chalukyas and that of the later Hoysala empire; this style is also called Karnata Dravida or, owing to the number of ornate temples built in the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab region of present-day Gadag district, the “Gadag style.”
• The dynasty’s temple-building activity reached its maturity and culmination in the 12th century, with over a hundred temples built across the Deccan — more than half of them in present-day central Karnataka.
  • Well-known examples include the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali, the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi, and the Kedareshvara Temple at Balligavi.
    • The 12th-century Mahadeva Temple, with its well-executed sculptures, is an exquisite example of decorative detail — its intricate, finely crafted carvings on walls, pillars, and towers speak volumes about Chalukya taste and culture. An inscription outside the temple calls it the “Emperor of Temples” (devalaya chakravarti) and states that it was built by Mahadeva, a commander in the army of Vikramaditya VI.
    • The Kedareswara Temple at Balligavi is an example of the transitional Chalukya-Hoysala architectural style.
• The vimana of these temples (the tower over the shrine) represents a compromise between the plain, stepped style of the early Chalukyas and the decorative finish of the Hoysalas.
  • The Western Chalukya architects are credited with developing lathe-turned pillars and using soapstone (Chloritic Schist) as a basic building and sculptural material — an idiom that later became very popular in Hoysala temples.
  • They also popularised the use of decorative Kirtimukha (demon faces) in sculpture; famous architects in the Hoysala kingdom included Chalukyan architects native to places such as Balligavi.
  • The artistic wall decor and overall sculptural idiom followed Dravidian architecture.
• Apart from temples, the dynasty’s architecture is well known for ornate stepped wells (Pushkarni), which served as ritual bathing places, several of which are well preserved at Lakkundi.
  • These stepped-well designs were later adopted by the Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara empire in subsequent centuries.

Language under the Chalukyas of Kalyani

• Kannada was the local language most widely used in Western (Kalyani) Chalukya inscriptions and epigraphs.
  • Some historians assert that ninety percent of their inscriptions are in Kannada, with the remainder in Sanskrit.
  • More Kannada inscriptions are attributed to Vikramaditya VI than to any other king prior to the 12th century; inscriptions were generally recorded either on stone (Shilashasana) or on copper plates (Tamarashasana).
• This period saw the growth of Kannada as a language of literature and poetry, an impetus that came from the devotional movement of the Virashaivas (Lingayatism), who expressed their closeness to their deity through simple lyrics called Vachanas.
  • At the administrative level, the regional language was used to record locations and rights related to land grants. In bilingual inscriptions, the section stating the king’s title, genealogy, origin myths, and benedictions was generally composed in Sanskrit, while Kannada was used to state the terms of the grant — including details of the land, its boundaries, the participation of local authorities, the rights and obligations of the grantee, taxes and dues, and witnesses — ensuring that the content was clearly understood by the local people without ambiguity.
• In addition to inscriptions, chronicles called Vamshavalis were written to record the historical details of dynasties.
  • Sanskrit writings of the period included poetry, grammar, lexicons, manuals, rhetoric, commentaries on older works, prose fiction, and drama, while Kannada writings on secular subjects became increasingly popular.
  • Notable works include the Chandombudhi (a prosody) and Karnataka Kadambari (a romance), both by Nagavarma I; the Rannakanda, a lexicon by Ranna; Karnataka-Kalyanakaraka, a book on medicine by Jagaddala Somanatha; the Jatakatilaka, the earliest known writing on astrology, by Sridharacharya; the Madanakatilaka, a writing on erotics, by Chandraraja; and the Lokapakara, an encyclopedia, by Chavundaraya II.