The Introduction of Western Education in India

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Sir Charles Wood’s Despatch on Education, 1854

Sir Charles Wood was President of the Board of Control in Britain — a firm believer in the superiority of English race and institutions, sincerely convinced that these could serve as a useful model for the world.
- In 1854, Wood prepared his comprehensive despatch on the future scheme of education in India — a document that came to be regarded as the “Magna Carta” of English education in India.
- The scheme envisaged a coordinated system of education on an all-India basis.

Main Recommendations

The despatch declared that the aim of the Government’s educational policy was the teaching of Western education: “The education which we desire to see extended in India is that which has for its object the diffusion of the improved arts, science, philosophy and literature of Europe.”
Medium of instruction:
- For higher education, the English language was deemed the most perfect medium of instruction.
- The despatch equally emphasised the importance of the vernacular languages, since it was through them that European knowledge could infiltrate to the masses.
It proposed a graded system comprising:
- vernacular primary schools in villages, at the lowest stage;
- Anglo-Vernacular high schools, at the next stage; and
- an affiliated college at the district level.
It recommended a system of grants-in-aid, to encourage and foster private enterprise in education.
- Such grants were conditional on institutions employing qualified teachers and maintaining proper standards of teaching.
A Department of Public Instruction, under a Director in each of the Company’s five provinces, was to review the progress of education in the province and submit an annual report to the Government.
Universities on the model of the University of London were proposed for Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras, empowered to hold examinations and confer degrees.
The despatch emphasised the importance of vocational instruction, and the need to establish technical schools and colleges.
- Teachers’ Training Institutions, on the model then prevalent in England, were also recommended.
- The despatch gave frank and cordial support for fostering the education of women.
The new scheme of education was, overall, largely an imitation of English models.

Implementation and Impact

Almost all the proposals in Wood’s Despatch were duly implemented.
- The Department of Public Instruction was organised in 1855, replacing the earlier Committee of Public Instruction and Council of Education.
- The three universities of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay came into existence in 1857.
- Largely due to the efforts of Bethune, girls’ schools were set up on a modern footing, brought under the Government’s grant-in-aid and inspection system.
The ideals and methods advocated in Wood’s Despatch dominated the field for roughly five decades.
- This period also witnessed a rapid Westernisation of the Indian educational system, as the indigenous system gradually gave way to the Western model.
- Most educational institutions of this period were run by European headmasters and principals under the Education Department, while missionary enterprise managed a number of institutions.
- Gradually, private Indian effort also began to appear in the field.

The Hunter Education Commission, 1882–83

In 1882, the Government appointed a Commission under the chairmanship of W.W. Hunter to review the progress of education since Wood’s Despatch of 1854.
- Another reason for appointing the Commission was missionary propaganda in England, alleging that India’s education system did not conform to the policy laid down in Wood’s Despatch.
- The resolution appointing the Commission instructed the Chairman to reorganise education in India such that “the different branches of public instruction should, if possible, move forward together and with more equal step.”
The Commission’s principal object was to inquire into the present state of elementary education across the Indian Empire, and the means by which it might be extended and improved.
- The Commission was not tasked with examining the general working of Indian universities, and thus confined its remarks mostly to secondary and primary education.

Main Recommendations

Primary Education

The Commission emphasised the State’s special responsibility for extending and improving primary education.
- “Primary instruction should be regarded as the instruction of the masses through the vernacular, in such subjects as will best fit them.”
- While private enterprise was welcomed at all stages of education, primary education itself was to be provided without reliance on local cooperation.
The Commission recommended transferring control of primary education to the newly established District and Municipal Boards, empowered to levy a cess for educational purposes.

Secondary Education

For secondary education, the principle was laid down that there should be two divisions:
- a literary education, leading up to the University’s Entrance Examination; and
- a practical stream, preparing students for commercial and vocational careers.

Encouraging Private Enterprise

The Commission recommended an all-out effort to encourage private enterprise in education, through:
- the extension and liberalisation of the grants-in-aid system; and
- recognition of aided schools as equal to Government institutions in matters of status and privileges.
The Government, it recommended, should withdraw as early as possible from the direct management of secondary and collegiate education.

Female Education

The Commission drew attention to the inadequate facilities for female education outside the Presidency towns, and made recommendations for its wider spread.

Impact

The twenty years following the Commission’s report saw an unprecedented growth and expansion of secondary and collegiate education.
- A marked feature of this expansion was the participation of Indian philanthropic activity, giving rise to numerous denominational institutions across the country.
- Interest was also kindled in Indian and Oriental studies, alongside the pursuit of Western knowledge.
This period also saw the establishment of new teaching-cum-examining universities.
- Punjab University, founded in 1882, was established as “the supreme literary, supreme teaching and supreme examining body.”
- Allahabad University was set up in 1887.

Curzon’s Policies and the Indian Universities Act, 1904

The early years of the 20th century were marked by growing political unrest and controversy over educational policy, with political developments acting and reacting upon educational developments.
- The official view held that educational expansion had proceeded on flawed lines — quality had deteriorated under private management, indiscipline was rampant in schools and colleges, and educational institutions had, in official eyes, become “factories” for producing political revolutionaries.
- All these unhealthy developments were attributed to the unregulated, rapid expansion of irresponsible private enterprise.
- Nationalist opinion conceded the lowering of standards, but emphasised that the Government itself was failing in its duty to liquidate illiteracy.
In his characteristic zeal for administrative reform, Curzon sought to reconstruct education in India.
- He deprecated the “too slavish imitation of English models,” and criticised Macaulay’s “colossal blunder” in erecting an “inverted pyramid” with an inherent prejudice against the Indian vernaculars.
- He also criticised the poor quality of teachers and the excessively examination-ridden nature of the system.
- His motives, however, were mainly political, and only partly educational — he justified greater official control over education in the name of quality and efficiency, but in practice sought to restrict education and discipline the educated mind towards loyalty to the Government.
- Nationalist opinion saw in Curzon’s policies an attempt to strengthen imperialism and sabotage the growth of nationalist feeling.
In September 1901, Curzon summoned senior educational officers from across India, along with university representatives, to a round-table conference at Simla.
- The Conference opened with a speech by the Viceroy surveying the entire field of education in India: “We have not met here to devise a brand new plan of educational reform which is to spring fully armed from the head of the Home Department and to be imposed nolens volens upon the Indian public.”
  - Later developments, however, would prove the hypocrisy behind this assertion.
- The Conference ultimately adopted 150 resolutions, touching nearly every conceivable branch of education.

Sir Thomas Raleigh Commission

The Shimla Conference was followed by the appointment, on 27 January 1902, of a Commission under Sir Thomas Raleigh, tasked with inquiring into the condition and prospects of Indian universities and recommending improvements to their constitution and working.
- Evidently, this Commission was precluded from reporting on primary or secondary education.
- Following its recommendations, the Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904.

Main Provisions of the Indian Universities Act, 1904

Universities were now expected to provide for the promotion of study and research, appoint university professors and lecturers, set up laboratories and libraries, and undertake direct instruction of students.
The number of Fellows of a university was fixed at between fifty and one hundred, each normally holding office for six years, rather than for life.
- Most Fellows were now to be nominated by the Government; the elective element stood at twenty each for Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay, and fifteen for other universities.
Government control over universities was further tightened by vesting it with the power to veto regulations passed by a university’s Senate.
- The Government could also make additions or alterations to Senate-framed regulations, or even frame regulations of its own.
The Act increased university control over private colleges by imposing stricter conditions of affiliation and periodic inspection by the Syndicate.
- Private colleges were required to maintain a proper standard of efficiency, with Government approval now necessary for granting or withdrawing affiliation.
- The Governor-General in Council was empowered to define a university’s territorial limits, or decide on the affiliation of colleges to it.
Nationalist opinion, both inside and outside the Legislative Council, strongly opposed the measure.
- G.K. Gokhale described the bill as “a retrograde measure” that cast unmerited aspersions on the country’s educated classes, designed to perpetuate “the narrow, bigoted and inexpensive rule of experts.”
- The Sadler Commission of 1917 later remarked that the Act of 1904 had made “the Indian universities among the most completely governmental universities in the world.”
- Indian opinion broadly believed that Curzon sought to reduce universities to mere departments of the State, sabotaging the growth of private enterprise in education.
A more positive outcome of Curzon’s policy, however, was the 1902 sanction of Rs 5 lakh per annum for five years, for the improvement of higher education and universities — a grant that has remained a permanent feature of Government policy ever since.

Government Resolution on Education Policy, 21 February 1913

In 1906, the progressive State of Baroda introduced compulsory primary education throughout its territories.
- Nationalist opinion saw no reason why the Government of India could not adopt a similar measure across British India.
- During 1910–13, G.K. Gokhale made heroic efforts in the Legislative Council, urging the Government to accept responsibility for compulsory primary education.
In its Resolution of 21 February 1913, the Government of India refused to recognise the principle of compulsory education, though it accepted the broader policy of removing illiteracy.
- It urged provincial governments to take early steps towards providing free elementary instruction to the poorer and more backward sections of the population, while also encouraging private effort in this direction.
- On secondary education, the Resolution stressed the need to improve the quality of schools.
- Regarding university education, it declared that a university should be established for each province, with teaching activities actively encouraged.

The Sadler University Commission, 1917–19

In 1917, the Government of India appointed a Commission to study and report on the problems of Calcutta University.
- Dr. M.E. Sadler, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds, was appointed Chairman, with two Indian members — Sir Asutosh Mukherjee and Dr. Zia-ud-din Ahmad.
While the Hunter Commission had focused on secondary education, and the University Commission of 1902 mainly on university education, the Sadler Commission reviewed the entire field — from school to university education.
- The Commission held that improving secondary education was a necessary precondition for improving university education; though its report focused on Calcutta University, its recommendations applied broadly to other Indian universities as well.

Recommendations

In the Commission’s view, revolutionary change in higher education was not possible without corresponding changes in secondary education — accordingly, several fundamental reforms were suggested at the secondary level.
- The dividing line between university and secondary courses should be drawn at the Intermediate examination, rather than at Matriculation, with the Government creating a new type of institution — the Intermediate College.
  - The curricula of these colleges should cover Arts, Science, Engineering, and Industrial Education, among others.
- Students should be entitled to enter university only after clearing the Intermediate, rather than the Matriculation, examination.
- The duration of the degree course after the Intermediate stage should be limited to three years.
- Provision should be made for Honours courses, distinct from Pass courses, for abler students.
A Board of Secondary and Intermediate Education — comprising representatives of the Government, universities, high schools, and Intermediate Colleges — should be established, and entrusted with the administration and control of secondary education.
The Commission also recommended less rigidity in framing university rules and regulations.
- It recommended establishing an Inter-University Board, to coordinate the activities of different Indian universities.
- Autonomous institutions were to receive greater encouragement, and centralised, residential-teaching universities were to be promoted, with sufficient autonomy for day-to-day working.
Women’s education was to be encouraged on a large scale.
- This included establishing a special Board of Women’s Education at Calcutta University, along with other facilities to encourage more women to pursue schooling, college, and university education.
Provision was to be made for training teachers, and for setting up Departments of Education at the Universities of Calcutta and Dacca.
- The Commission recommended centralised, unitary teaching autonomous bodies, including a unitary teaching university for Dacca, to reduce the burden of students on Calcutta University.
The Commission also emphasised the growth of colleges in towns, and encouraged the establishment of new university centres, to help spread higher education more widely and effectively.

Impact of the Sadler Commission

It led to a marked increase in the number of universities. Following its suggestions, new universities were established at Patna, Osmania, Aligarh, Dacca, Lucknow, Delhi, Agra, Nagpur, Hyderabad, and Annamalai — bringing the total to 30 by 1930.
It led universities to begin genuine teaching work.
- The functions of the original three universities — Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras — had been confined to affiliation, examination, and conferring degrees, with teaching handled by degree colleges and no provision for postgraduate education.
- Following the Commission’s recommendations, the number of teaching and residential universities rose sharply — most newly established universities were, in fact, teaching universities.
Academic activity increased with the introduction of Honours courses; the study of different Indian languages began, and facilities for higher studies and research were created.
- The post of Professor was created at universities, and the practice of inviting learned faculty from abroad began, broadening the academic outlook.
- Departments of Education were opened at the Calcutta and Dacca universities.
Internal university administration improved, with the formation of a University Court and Executive Council in place of the earlier Senate and Syndicate.
- The creation of an Academic Council, to handle matters such as curriculum, examinations, and research, greatly helped raise academic standards.
- An Inter-University Board, as recommended, was set up in 1925, to promote connection and coordination among Indian universities.
The Commission also introduced a provision for student welfare, directing universities’ attention to it for the first time — a Board of Students’ Welfare was subsequently formed at each university.
In 1920, the Government of India recommended the Sadler Report to the provincial governments.

Education under Dyarchy, 1921–37

As a result of the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919, the Department of Education was transferred to the control of popular ministers in the various provinces.
- The Central Government ceased taking direct interest in educational matters, and its own Department of Education was amalgamated with other departments.
- Central special grants for education, liberally sanctioned since 1902, were discontinued.
Financial difficulties prevented provincial governments from undertaking ambitious schemes of educational expansion or improvement.
- Despite these constraints, education still saw considerable expansion, driven largely by philanthropic effort.

The Hartog Committee, 1929

The quantitative increase in education inevitably led to a deterioration in quality and lowered standards — provoking considerable dissatisfaction with the educational system.
- The Indian Statutory Commission appointed a report on the development of education, whose main findings are summarised below.
It emphasised the national importance of primary education, but condemned any hasty expansion or attempts to introduce compulsion in education, instead recommending a policy of consolidation and improvement.
On secondary education, the Committee noted that the system remained dominated by the Matriculation Examination, viewed by many undeserving students as the sole path to university education.
- It recommended a selective admission system, urging that most boys destined for rural pursuits be retained at the Middle Vernacular School stage.
- After this Middle stage, students should be diverted towards diversified courses leading to industrial and commercial careers.
The Committee highlighted the weaknesses of university education, criticising the policy of indiscriminate admission, which had contributed to falling standards.
- It recommended that “all efforts should be concentrated in improving university work, in confining the university to its proper function of giving good advanced education to students who are fit to receive it.”

The Wardha Scheme of Basic Education

The Government of India Act, 1935, introduced provincial autonomy, and popular ministries began functioning from 1937, with the Congress party coming to power in seven provinces.
- The Congress party set about evolving a national scheme of education for the country.
In 1937, Mahatma Gandhi published a series of articles in his paper, The Harijan, proposing a scheme of education known as Basic Education, better known as the Wardha Scheme.
- Its central principle was “learning through activity.”
- The Zakir Husain Committee worked out the scheme’s details, preparing detailed syllabi for a number of crafts, and offering suggestions on teacher training, supervision, examination, and administration.
The scheme centred on manual productive work, which was expected to help cover teachers’ remuneration.
- It envisaged a seven-year course, conducted through the mother tongue of the students.
- The outbreak of the Second World War in 1939, and the subsequent resignation of Congress ministries, led to the postponement of the scheme.

The Sargent Plan of Education, 1944

In 1944, the Central Advisory Board of Education drew up a national scheme of education, generally known as the Sargent Plan (after Sir John Sargent, Educational Advisor to the Government of India).

Recommendations

Establishment of elementary and high schools (junior and senior basic schools).
Introduction of universal, free, and compulsory education for children between the ages of 6 and 11.
A six-year school course for children between the ages of 11 and 17.
High schools to be of two types — (a) academic, and (b) technical and vocational — each following different curricula.
Abolition of the Intermediate course, with an additional year added at both the high school and college stages.
The Sargent Scheme envisaged, in total, a 40-year plan for educational reconstruction across the country.