Rise of Provincial Dynasties: Kashmir (Zain-ul Abidin)
- Zain-ul Abidin ruled Kashmir from 1420 to 1470.
- He is regarded as one of the greatest rulers of medieval Kashmir.
- He is popularly known as Bud Shah or the Great King.
- He is also described as the “Akbar of Kashmir” because of his liberal, tolerant, and welfare-oriented rule.
- His reign marked a major shift in the history of provincial dynasties in Kashmir.
- Kashmir moved from disorder, persecution, and economic distress towards administrative stability, religious tolerance, cultural revival, and material prosperity.
- His rule is important for UPSC History Optional because it reflects the role of regional rulers in state-building, cultural synthesis, and public welfare.
Jonaraja
- Jonaraja was a Kashmiri historian and Sanskrit poet.
- He was patronized by Zain-ul Abidin.
- His Dvitiya Rajatarangini continued Kalhana’s Rajatarangini.
- It brought the chronicle of the kings of Kashmir down to the period of his patron, Zain-ul Abidin.
- Jonaraja’s account is the main source of information about Zain-ul Abidin.
- However, Jonaraja could not complete the history of his patron.
- He died in the 35th regnal year of Zain-ul Abidin.
- His pupil Srivara continued the historical work.
Situation before the Reign of Zain-ul Abidin
- Mongol invasion of Kashmir
- The Mongol leader Dulucha launched a devastating attack on Kashmir in 1320.
- He ordered a wholesale massacre of men.
- Women and children were enslaved and sold to merchants of Central Asia.
- Towns and villages were ravaged, plundered, and set on fire.
- Reign of Sultan Sikandar Shah (1389-1413)
- During the reign of his father, Sultan Sikandar Shah, a severe persecution of the Brahmans began.
- Sikandar ordered that all Brahmans and learned Hindus should either become Muslims or leave the valley.
- Temples were destroyed.
- Idols of gold and silver were melted and used for currency.
Reign of Zain-ul Abidin
- About a century after the Mongol invasion, the situation changed with the accession of Zain-ul Abidin (1420-1470).
- His reign brought order, tolerance, cultural revival, and economic recovery to Kashmir.
Administration
Law and Order
- When Zain-ul Abidin ascended the throne, the country was in chaos.
- The administration had broken down.
- Corruption was widespread.
- There was no effective law and order.
- Criminals had become powerful.
- His first major task was to restore order in these disturbed conditions.
- He encouraged the old class of officials, especially the Pandits, to return to Kashmir.
- He provided them facilities and guaranteed their religious and civil liberties.
- He dealt severely with corrupt officials to root out corruption from administration.
Justice
- Zain-ul Abidin enacted a code of laws for his people.
- These laws were engraved on copper plates.
- They were displayed in public places and halls of justice.
- The Sultan disliked unnecessary killing and bloodshed.
- He avoided capital punishment wherever possible.
- His leniency did not encourage crime because he remained completely impartial as a judge.
- According to Jonaraja, the king was kind-hearted but did not pardon even his son, minister, or friend if found guilty.
- Mir Yahya, a favourite of the king, killed his wife while drunk.
- Though close to the Sultan, he was found guilty and executed.
Welfare Work
- The Sultan maintained several charitable institutions.
- He distributed free food among the poor and infirm.
- His welfare measures reflected his concern for public relief and social stability.
Relief Work during Famine
- Towards the end of his reign, a severe famine occurred in Kashmir.
- It was caused by early snowfall, which destroyed the fully ripe paddy crop.
- The following winter was also very severe.
- A large number of people died.
- The king made serious efforts to reduce the suffering of the people.
- After normal conditions returned, he punished black marketers and hoarders.
- Those who had exploited people during the crisis were made accountable.
- The excess money charged from the people was returned.
Flood Prevention
- After the famine, Kashmir was also devastated by floods.
- To prevent such destruction in future, the king decided to extend the city towards the higher ground around Hari Parbat.
- He founded a new city, which is still known as Naushahar.
Religion
- Zain-ul Abidin was highly tolerant towards other religions.
- He made Kashmir a place where people of different religions and nationalities could live together.
- Men of different faiths shared one another’s joys and sorrows.
- Due to the policy of Sikandar, many Hindus had left Kashmir.
- They had carried with them valuable religious and secular books.
- Zain-ul Abidin was popular among Hindus even before he came to the throne.
- After ascending the throne, he conciliated the non-Muslims who had fled.
- He brought them back to Kashmir.
- Those who wanted to return to Hinduism were allowed to do so.
- Those who had pretended to be Muslims to save their lives were also given freedom.
- He enacted laws to ensure justice for non-Muslims.
- Their cases were to be tried according to their own laws and customs.
- This strengthened confidence in his administration.
- He revoked the persecutory measures of Sikandar and Suha Bhatt.
- A general policy of religious toleration was proclaimed.
- Many temples destroyed in the previous reign were rebuilt.
- Permission was granted to construct new temples.
- More than a hundred years later, Abul Fazl noted that Kashmir had one hundred and fifty majestic temples.
- Zain-ul Abidin restored Hindu libraries.
- He also restored the grants enjoyed by the Hindus.
- He introduced several measures to respect Hindu sentiments.
- Cow slaughter was penalized.
- Jizya was abolished.
- The ban on sati was withdrawn to respect the wishes of the Hindus.
- Killing of Nagas was also forbidden.
- The king participated in the annual Nagayatra Festival.
- He joined other pilgrims.
- He fed thousands of ascetics and Brahmans.
- To atone for the wrongs done during his father’s reign, he built homes for widows of Brahmans killed in preceding reigns.
- He appointed learned and experienced Hindus to high posts.
- These officials studied Persian, the new court language, at his command.
- Sriya Bhatt served as minister of justice and court physician.
- The king’s first two queens were Hindus.
- They were daughters of the Raja of Jammu.
- They were the mothers of all four of his sons.
Architecture
- Zain-ul Abidin was a great builder.
- Remains of his towns, villages, canals, and bridges continued to bear his name.
- His greatest architectural achievement was Zaina Lanka.
- It was an artificial island in Wular Lake.
- He built a palace and a mosque on it.
- He also founded several towns.
- Zaingir
- Zainket
- Zainpur
Canals
- He constructed canals to use the fertile but dry soil of the karewas.
- Important canals included Utpalapur, Nandashaila, and Bijbhira.
- These works gave a major boost to agricultural production in the valley.
Bridges
- He built many bridges.
- The first wooden bridge in Srinagar was known as Zainakadal.
- It has now been replaced by a concrete bridge.
- One of his engineers, Damara Kach, constructed a paved road.
- It could be used even during rains.
Palaces
- The Sultan was fond of wooden architecture.
- He built the palaces of Rajdan and Zain Dab in Zainagiri.
- These were beautiful and artistic buildings.
Rest Houses and Gardens
- He built rest houses for travellers.
- He also laid out beautiful gardens.
- Important examples include Baghi Zainagiri and Baghi Zaina Dab.
Literature and Learning
- Zain-ul Abidin promoted education on a large scale.
- He established many schools, colleges, and a residential university.
- He wanted to make Kashmir a centre of knowledge and learning.
- He patronized Sanskrit scholars.
- Jonaraja
- Srivara
- Soma Pandit
- Bodhi Bhatt
- Soma Pandit wrote an account of Zain-ul Abidin’s life.
- His work was titled Zaina Charit.
- Many Sanskrit works were translated into Persian.
- These included the Mahabharata.
- Kalhana’s Rajatarangini was also translated into Persian.
- Persian and Arabic works were also translated into other languages.
- The Sultan patronized Persian and Arabic scholars.
- He also patronized vaids and hakims.
- Important names included Shree Bhatt and Karpurra Bhatt.
- Many hakims from Central Asia came to his court.
- The Sultan himself was a learned man.
- He knew Persian, Kashmiri, Sanskrit, and Tibetan.
- He was also skilled in composing poetry.
- He supported students generously.
- He provided teachers, books, houses, food, and money.
- He expanded the scope of learning in many branches.
Military and Diplomacy
- Zain-ul Abidin reorganized his army.
- He made it a formidable force.
- He used it to reconquer Punjab and Western Tibet.
Unification of Kashmir
- The Sultan was a capable warrior.
- He defeated the Mongol invasion of Ladakh.
- He conquered the Baltistan area.
- He maintained control over Jammu, Rajauri, and other regions.
- In this way, he strengthened the unity of the Kashmir kingdom.
- He maintained friendly relations with rulers of territories over which he had no inherited historical control.
- Records show that he gave and received presents.
- He is said to have valued a learned gift more than precious stones.
- He maintained friendly relations with neighbouring and distant powers.
- These included Khurasan, Turkistan, Egypt, Mecca, and Tibet.
- He also annexed large territories into the kingdom of Kashmir.
- He exchanged embassies with several regions.
- Egypt
- Gwalior
- Mecca
- Bengal
- Sindh
- Gujarat
- Other regions
Economic Development
Employment
- Zain-ul Abidin understood that crime was linked with unemployment and poverty.
- He took steps to provide suitable employment to eligible persons in different fields.
Agricultural Development
- The Sultan contributed to the agricultural development of Kashmir.
- He constructed dams and canals.
- During famine and other natural calamities, peasants were given relief.
- Relief was provided in the form of loans, grain, and fodder.
Revision of Land Assessment
- Due to long periods of lawlessness and insecurity, farmers had left much land uncultivated.
- Zain-ul Abidin’s first major reform was the revision of land assessment.
- He reduced it to one-fourth of the total produce in some places.
- In other places, he reduced it to one-seventh.
Protection of Farmers
- Farmers were protected from harassment by revenue officials.
- A law prohibited officials from accepting gifts from peasants.
- This reduced exploitation and promoted confidence among cultivators.
System of Registration
- A system of registration was introduced to prevent fraudulent property transactions.
- Agricultural records were maintained.
- This improved revenue administration and property security.
Business Integrity and Price Regulation
- The Sultan introduced correct measures and weights.
- Artisans and traders were made to take solemn oaths not to cheat or swindle.
- This promoted commercial morality and integrity.
Price Control
- He introduced market control.
- Prices of commodities were fixed.
- Traders and merchants were ordered to sell commodities at fixed rates.
- The Sultan also subsidized the import of commodities that were scarce in the state.
Currency Reform
- He stabilized the currency.
- The currency had been debased during the reign of his predecessors.
- His currency reform helped trade and commerce.
Arts and Crafts
- Zain-ul Abidin gave strong patronage to foreign artists and craftsmen.
- As a result, many artists and craftsmen came to the Kashmir Valley.
- He invited competent teachers and craftsmen from Samarqand to train his subjects.
- Several handicrafts were introduced or developed during his reign.
- Carpet weaving
- Papier mache
- Silk
- Paper making
- Kashmiri artisans improved and perfected these crafts.
- Their fame spread across Asia and even to Europe.
- According to writer Pandit Anand Kaul, Zain-ul Abidin turned Kashmir into a “smiling garden of industry.”
- Significant progress was made in many crafts and industries.
- Glass making
- Silk, shawl, and carpet weaving
- Wood carving
- Stone-cutting and polishing
- Bottle-making
- Gold-beating
- Paper making
- Book binding
- He encouraged the art of shawl-making, for which Kashmir became famous.
- He is said to have founded the Pashmina wool industry in Kashmir.
- Before the introduction of these arts and crafts, Kashmir was industrially backward.
- Even the loom was not indigenously available in the valley.
- It was introduced by Persian craftsmen.
- The weaver’s brush, loom, and weaving of silk cloth were introduced during his time.
- The art of bridge-making also developed during his reign.
- Persian artists contributed to this skill in Kashmir.
- To train locals in paper making and book binding, the Sultan sent two persons to Samarkand.
- One learned the art of paper making.
- The other learned book binding.
Firework and Musket Making
- The art of fireworks and musket making was introduced during his time.
- A person named Habib was trained for this purpose.
- Due to the Sultan’s efforts, many locals learned the art of fire-making.
- As a result, new weapons began to be made locally.
Music
- Kashmiris were influenced by the vocal and instrumental music of Persia.
- Instruments such as rabab, sitar, duhal, sunray, and duff were introduced by immigrants during the reign of Zain-ul Abidin.
- The Sultan had deep love for learning, music, and dance.
- After hearing of his interest, the Raja of Gwalior sent him two rare Sanskrit works on music.
Drama and Dancing
- He reintroduced the arts of drama and dancing.
- These arts had suffered under the puritanical policies of Sikandar.
Conclusion
- Sultan Zain-ul Abidin ruled Kashmir with equity, justice, and tolerance.
- He restored law and order.
- He protected religious communities.
- He promoted agriculture, trade, crafts, literature, music, and architecture.
- He improved the material prosperity of the people.
- He was rightly surnamed Bud Shah of Kashmir.
- Because of his glorious contributions, his name is still remembered with genuine respect in the history of medieval Kashmir and the rise of provincial dynasties.
