Religious Policies of Shah Jahan
By the time Shah Jahan ascended the throne in 1627, a discernible shift in the climate of tolerance and liberalism appeared to have set in at the Mughal court. Islamic precepts began to exercise a somewhat greater degree of control over the affairs of state — a change reflected even in court etiquette, most notably in the manner of saluting the Emperor. Understanding the religious policies of Shah Jahan is essential for tracing the gradual, though still incomplete, drift away from Akbar’s model of sulh-i-kul towards the more rigid orthodoxy that would later define Aurangzeb’s reign.
- Akbar had introduced the practice of sijda (prostration) in his court, but Shah Jahan abolished it, holding that this form of veneration was fit only for the Almighty.
- In its place, Shah Jahan substituted chahar taslim (a four-fold salutation) for sijda.
- Shah Jahan also banned mixed marriages between Hindus and Muslims in Kashmir — a practice that had typically resulted in Muslim women embracing the religion of their Hindu husbands.
- Jahangir had earlier attempted to ban this same practice, though without success in enforcing it.
Shah Jahan’s Temple Policy
Perhaps the most significant step taken by Shah Jahan came in his sixth regnal year (1633), when he ordered that no temple whose foundation had been laid during Jahangir’s reign, but which remained incomplete, would be permitted to be finished.
- The author of the Amal-i-Salih records that seventy-six temples in the region of Banaras were demolished on the Emperor’s orders.
- The justification offered was that “new idol-houses” (taza sanamkhana) could not be constructed — though temples built before Shah Jahan’s own accession were left untouched.
- Temples and churches were also destroyed in the course of specific military conflicts:
- During the Bundela rebellion, Bir Singh Deo’s temple at Orchha was destroyed and a mosque built in its place.
- Christian churches at Hugli were destroyed during the clash with the Portuguese there.
The Limits of Enforcement
Despite these measures, it does not appear that Shah Jahan seriously attempted to enforce a blanket policy against the construction of new temples.
- In 1629, he granted land to Shantidas, the leading Jain jeweller and banker of Ahmedabad, to build a resting place (poshala) for Jain saints. Shantidas subsequently built a fine Jain temple near Ahmedabad, to which no objection was raised.
- In 1654, while serving as Governor of Gujarat, Aurangzeb converted this very temple into a mosque, constructing a mihrab (prayer niche) inside it — part of his broader policy of targeting newly built temples in Gujarat.
- However, following a complaint from Shantidas, and a ruling from the noted scholar Mulla Abdul Hakim that Aurangzeb had flagrantly violated the sharia by usurping Shantidas’s property — rendering the mosque itself without sanctity — Shah Jahan ordered the mihrab blocked up and the temple restored to Shantidas.
- The imperial farman further directed that any material removed from the temple be restored, and compensation paid for anything lost.
- Similarly, the magnificent temple built at Mathura by Bir Singh Deo Bundela during Jahangir’s reign was left entirely undisturbed.
This suggests that Shah Jahan’s ban on new temples was, in practice, largely token in nature — “more an assertion of a principle than an effective measure.” It functioned more as a declaration that Islam would once again be treated as the dominant religion than as a genuine attempt at the suppression of Hinduism. It has also been argued that Shah Jahan’s construction of several magnificent mosques, including the Jama Masjid at Delhi, and monuments such as the Taj Mahal at Agra — said to replicate the Muslim conception of Paradise — reflect this same renewed emphasis on the power and majesty of Islam, though the building of grand mosques was, in itself, hardly an unusual practice for a Muslim ruler.
Continuing Threads of Liberalism
That a broad current of tolerance persisted throughout Shah Jahan’s reign is evident from several of his other actions:
- He confirmed the grants earlier given to the Vaishnava temples at Vrindavan.
- Even more significantly, he ordered that the time-gong at one such temple be permitted to sound, since “a large number of God-worshipping Hindu mendicants are engaged in divine worship according to their own religion and custom” — a direct affirmation of Akbar’s policy of sulh-i-kul.
Conflict with the Sikhs
Shah Jahan came into open conflict with the Sikh Guru Hargobind, culminating in a fierce battle at Kartarpur (1631), after which the Guru withdrew into the Kashmir hills.
Pressure from the Muslim Orthodoxy
The orthodox Muslim sections of the court rallied around Shaikh Abdul Haq of Delhi and Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi, the latter hailed as Mujaddid (“Renovator”) of the second millennium of Islam.
- Both men were profound scholars of Muslim jurisprudence and theology, and placed great emphasis on the strict implementation of the sharia.
- Both also pursued a distinct political agenda, seeking to win over leading nobles to their cause through correspondence, while also enrolling students in their own seminaries.
- An analysis of their letters suggests that their principal demands were threefold:
- The humiliation of the Hindus, entailing the destruction of temples, the severance of social intercourse with them, their exclusion from public service, and — where employment was unavoidable — a policy of active distrust towards them.
- The revival of the jizya, regarded as a mark of Muslim superiority and intended to humiliate the kafirs.
- The exclusion of all practices deemed bidat (innovations falling outside the strict ambit of the sharia) — whether cultural (such as the ban on music and painting), moral (such as the ban on wine), or social (such as tuladan and jharoka darshan).
Like Jahangir before him, Shah Jahan rejected almost all of these demands. Even the ban on the construction of new temples was not enforced with any real rigour, as Aurangzeb himself discovered during his tenure as Governor of Gujarat.
The Liberal Counter-Current
Against this orthodox pressure, the liberal elements of the court coalesced around the doctrine of wahdat-al-wujud (monism). This trend was led by the Chishti saints and by the Qadiri saint Mian Mir of Lahore, who enjoyed the backing and support of Prince Dara Shukoh and Princess Jahanara.
- Shah Jahan himself did not formally align with either the liberal or the orthodox current, even though some contemporary historians conferred upon him the title of mujaddid, or renovator of Islam.
- Nor did the nobility as a whole align decisively with either group, remaining broadly eclectic in their religious and political outlook.
Continued Patronage of Music and Painting
Notably, the Muslim orthodoxy was unable to exert any real influence over the Emperor in the matter of patronage to music and painting.
- Dhrupad remained Shah Jahan’s favoured form of vocal music. The celebrated Hindu musician Jagannath received considerable royal encouragement, being honoured with the title of Maha Kavi Rai.
- The art of painting likewise continued to flourish during his reign. Patronage of music and painting had been a settled state policy since the time of Akbar, and his grandson Shah Jahan continued this same tradition.
Conclusion
On balance, Shah Jahan may be said to have attempted a compromise. While formally declaring the state to be an Islamic one, showing due respect to the sharia, and observing its injunctions in his personal life, he did not reject any of Akbar’s liberal measures — such as jharoka darshan or the practice of weighing himself for gifts (tuladan).
Despite certain deviations from the norms established by Akbar and continued under Jahangir, Shah Jahan did not impose jizya on non-Muslims, nor did the number of Hindu mansabdars at his court fall below the levels maintained by his predecessors.
Like all compromises, however, Shah Jahan’s was grounded not in principle but in expediency. As such, it satisfied no single party — and the orthodox elements, sensing themselves growing stronger than before, continued to press their demand for a state built on the strict implementation of the sharia, a demand that would find fuller expression under his successor, Aurangzeb.
Composition of Nobility Under Different Mughal Emperors
The nobility formed a core part of the ruling class throughout the Mughal period. In theory, the doors of Mughal nobility were open to all; in practice, however, persons from established aristocratic families enjoyed a distinct advantage. The composition of the nobility also shifted considerably according to the attitude of successive Mughal rulers towards particular sects or communities. Initially, the bulk of Mughal nobles were drawn from the dynasty’s homeland — the Turanis and the neighbouring Iranis.
Nobility Under Babur
- Predominantly Turanis (Sunnis).
- A small number of Iranis (Shias).
- Some Afghans.
- Some Shaikh-zadas (Indian Muslims).
Nobility Under Humayun
- Predominantly Turanis, with a new Turani nobility created by promoting lower-ranking Turani nobles.
- Some Iranis.
Nobility Under Akbar
- A large proportion of Turanis, alongside Iranis and Shaikh-zadas.
- Afghans were largely avoided, owing to lingering suspicion stemming from Sher Shah Suri.
- Hindus began to be recruited into the nobility on a regular basis:
- Among the Rajputs, preference was largely given to the Kachhwahas, such as Man Singh, who rose to high positions with substantial mansabs.
- Khatris (for example, Todar Mal and Rai Pitradas).
- Kayasthas, who came to dominate the revenue department.
- Brahmins (for example, Rai Purushottam).
- A few references also exist to Jain nobles at court.
Nobility Under Jahangir
- Iranis became dominant, owing largely to the influence of Nur Jahan.
- The status of Afghans improved somewhat — earlier anti-Afghan sentiment among the Mughals, rooted in the revolts of Afghans and the legacy of Sher Shah Suri, began to ease. The important Afghan noble of this period was Khan-i-Jahan Lodi.
- Marathas were incorporated into the nobility for the first time — for example, Kheloji and Maloji.
- The influence of the Kachhwahas declined somewhat, with other Rajput clans being recruited in their place.
Nobility Under Shah Jahan
- Afghans lost the elevated status they had achieved under Jahangir, largely due to the rebellion of Khan-i-Jahan Lodi.
- A greater number of Marathas were recruited.
- Iranis remained the dominant group, while Turanis lost some of their earlier importance.
- The percentage of Hindu nobles rose from 16% under Akbar to 24% under Shah Jahan.
Nobility Under Aurangzeb
- There was a further improvement in the position of Afghans.
- More Marathas were recruited into the nobility.
- Deccani nobles — from Bijapur, Golkonda, and Ahmadnagar — were incorporated for the first time.
- The percentage of Hindu nobles rose further to 33%, with Marathas forming the majority among them — though, notably, they were not granted the same high mansabs that Rajputs had enjoyed under Akbar.
Taken as a whole, this evolving composition demonstrates that the Mughals, in general, did not pursue a rigid racial or sectarian policy in the constitution of their nobility — the imperial ruling class remained, throughout, a genuinely composite body representing a wide range of religions and ethnicities.
