Orthodox & Unorthodox Systems of Indian Philosophy
Indian philosophy is traditionally classified into two broad groups based on a single defining criterion: whether a system accepts the authority of the Vedas. For UPSC History Optional and Philosophy Optional aspirants alike, this classification — into the six Orthodox (astika) systems and the Unorthodox (nastika) systems — is foundational, along with the traditional pairings of the orthodox schools, their widely acknowledged founders, and the common characteristics shared across nearly all Indian philosophical traditions. This article examines the classification of Indian philosophical systems, their traditional pairs and founders, and the characteristics common to Indian philosophy as a whole.
Classification of Indian Philosophical Systems
- The Vedas are the oldest scriptures in the world, and Indian philosophical systems are classified according to whether or not they accept the authority of the Vedas. The systems of Indian philosophy are thus classified into two groups:
- the Orthodox Systems (astika, or theistic); and
- the Unorthodox Systems (nastika, or atheistic).
- The Vedas are commonly accepted by their adherents as having originally emanated from God.
- Therefore, in the Indian tradition, any system of thought not grounded in the Vedas — even if it includes belief in God or gods — is considered atheistic, or nastika.
- The astika schools, originally called Sanatana Dharma, are collectively referred to as Hinduism in modern times.
- The orthodox systems are Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva-Mimamsa, and Uttar-Mimamsa.
- Very often, Purva-Mimamsa is referred to as “Mimamsa” only, and Uttar-Mimamsa as “Vedanta.”
- The unorthodox systems are Charvakism, Ajivika, Jainism, and Buddhism.
- The orthodox systems uphold the supremacy of the Vedas, while the unorthodox systems reject the authority of the Vedas.
- Strictly speaking, Vaisheshika, Nyaya, Samkhya, and Yoga are neither orthodox nor unorthodox in this sense — these four systems, at their origin, neither accepted nor rejected the Vedas.
- The orthodox systems form pairs as follows: Nyaya–Vaisheshika, Yoga–Samkhya, and Mimamsa–Vedanta.
- In each of these pairs, the first system is concerned with practice, and the second focuses on theoretical aspects.
- It can sometimes be difficult to name a single founder or promoter of a system; however, the following are widely acknowledged as proponents of the systems above:
- Gautama for Nyaya;
- Kanada for Vaisheshika;
- Patanjali for Yoga;
- Kapila for Samkhya;
- Jaimini for Purva-Mimamsa; and
- Shankara for Uttar-Mimamsa.
Common Characteristics of Indian Philosophy
- The systems of Indian philosophy, with the notable exception of the Ajivikas and Charvakism, share certain common characteristics; Charvakism differs markedly from the other systems in that it promotes materialism.
- The following characteristics are common to all the other systems:
- All the schools emphasise that philosophy must have a positive impact on the life of man.
- The schools generally agree on the importance of the Purusharthas.
- All the schools agree that philosophy should help man realise the main ends of human life — the purusharthas: artha, kama, dharma, and moksha.
- All the systems hold that philosophy should lead man from darkness and ignorance to light and knowledge.
- There is general agreement among the systems that truth and reality should be verifiable, substantiated through reasoning and experience — an experience that may be sensory, conceptual, or intuitional.
- It is accepted by all the schools that man’s suffering results from his ignorance, and that man can conquer this ignorance and attain total freedom (moksha) even within this bodily existence.
- There is general agreement on man’s essential spirituality.
- All the schools emphasise that philosophy must have a positive impact on the life of man.
