Mughal Administration

Mughal Administration: Introduction

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Mughal administration refers to the elaborate system of governance evolved by the Mughal rulers to manage a vast, culturally diverse, and territorially extensive empire. The central objective of this administrative apparatus was to exercise effective control over the different parts of the Empire so that recalcitrant elements challenging Mughal sovereignty could be checked. This was no easy task — each region of the Mughal Empire was inhabited by a diverse population, over whom local rulers or dominant chieftains exerted considerable influence.

The true ingenuity of the Mughal polity lay in its ability to not merely subdue these refractory rulers and chieftains but to incorporate them into its administrative structure and enrol them into military service. Sustaining such a vast and elaborate administration required the appropriation of maximum rural surplus in the form of land revenue, and the entire machinery of Mughal Empire administration — from the Emperor down to the village headman — was geared towards this end. A study of the Mughal administrative system is essential for understanding not just the polity of the period, but also the broader debates on centralisation, bureaucracy, and state formation in medieval India — a recurring theme in the UPSC History Optional syllabus.

Central Administration

The Mughal Empire had a pan-Indian character. Babur and Humayun, owing to the brevity of their reigns and their preoccupation with military campaigns, could not concentrate on establishing a definite system or pattern of administration. It was only by the end of Akbar’s reign that elaborate offices with clearly assigned functions were established. Rules and regulations governing both the public and private conduct of officers were fixed in such detail that these officials effectively became what may be termed the apparatus of the Empire.

The Emperor

• Ancient Indian traditions had always supported the idea of a strong ruler, and Muslim jurists and writers held a similar view. Consequently, the concept of the divine origin of monarchy found easy acceptance among the Indian populace.
• Jharokha Darshan:
  • This ritual was publicised with great pomp and show, wherein the Emperor appeared at an appointed hour before the general public.
  • The underlying myth was that a mere glimpse of His Majesty would redress the grievances of his subjects.
• Given this popular perception of the ruler, all officers in the Mughal administration owed their position and power to the Emperor. Their appointment, promotion, demotion, and termination were entirely subject to the ruler’s personal preference and whims.

Wakil and Wazir

• The institution of wizarat (or wikalat, the two terms being used interchangeably) is generally traced back to the Abbasid Caliphs.
• Under the Delhi Sultans, the wazir enjoyed both civil and military powers. However, under Balban, his powers were curtailed when the Sultan bifurcated military authority under the diwan-i-arz. Under Sher Shah, the office remained almost in abeyance under the Afghans.
• Under the early Mughals, the position of the wazir was revived:
  • Babur’s wazir, Nizamuddin Muhammad Khalifa, enjoyed both civil and military powers.
  • Humayun’s wazir, Hindu Beg, also virtually enjoyed great powers.
  • The period of Bairam Khan’s regency (1556–60) saw the rise of the wakil-wazir with unlimited powers concentrated under Bairam Khan.
• Akbar:
  • Stripped the wakil of his financial powers and entrusted them to the diwan-i-kul (Finance Minister).
  • This separation of finance dealt a significant blow to the wakil’s authority. Nevertheless, the office continued to enjoy the highest place in the Mughal bureaucratic hierarchy, despite the reduction in its powers.

Diwan-i-Kul (Chief Diwan)

• Akbar strengthened the office of the diwan by entrusting it with revenue powers.
• The chief diwan (diwan-i-kul) was made responsible for revenue and finances. His primary duty was to supervise the imperial treasury and check all accounts.
  • He personally inspected all transactions and payments across departments and maintained direct contact with the provincial diwans, whose functioning was kept under his vigil.
  • His seal and signature were mandatory for the validation of all official papers involving revenue.
  • The entire revenue collection and expenditure machinery of the Empire was under his charge, and no fresh order of appointment or promotion could be effected without his seal.
• To check the growing power of the diwan, the Mughal Emperor required him to submit a daily report on state finances.
• The central revenue ministry was divided into several departments to look after the specific needs of the Empire, such as diwan-i-khalisa, diwan-i-tan (for cash salaries), diwan-i-jagir, and diwan-i-buyutat (royal household).
  • Each branch was further subdivided into sections manned by a secretary, superintendents, and clerks. The mustaufi served as auditor, and the mushrif as chief accountant.
• The khazanadar looked after the imperial treasury.

Mir Bakhshi

• The office of mir-i-arz of the Delhi Sultanate was renamed mir bakhshi under the Mughals.
• Duties:
  • All orders of appointment of mansabdars and their salary papers were endorsed and passed by him.
  • He personally supervised the branding of horses (dagh) and checked the muster-roll (chehra) of soldiers; the salary amount was certified on the basis of his verification, after which the diwan made the entry in his records and placed it before the King.
  • He placed all matters pertaining to the military department before the Emperor and presented new entrants seeking service before him.
  • He dealt directly with the provincial bakhshis and waqai-navis, and accompanied the Emperor on tours, pleasure trips, hunting expeditions, and to the battlefield.
  • It was his duty to ensure that mansabdars were allotted proper places at court according to their rank — these darbar duties considerably enhanced his prestige and influence.
• The mir bakhshi was assisted by other bakhshis at the central level, the first three being designated as the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd bakhshi. There were also separate bakhshis for the ahadis (special imperial troopers) and for the domestic servants of the royal household (bakhshi-i-shagird pesha).

Mir Saman

• The mir saman, also known as the khan saman, was the officer in charge of the royal karkhanas.
• Duties:
  • As chief executive officer, he was responsible for the purchase of all kinds of articles and their storage for the royal household, as well as for supervising the manufacture of articles ranging from weapons of war to luxury goods.
  • He worked directly under the Emperor, though he had to approach the diwan for the sanction of money and the auditing of accounts.
• Several officers worked under the mir saman, including the diwan-i-buyutat and the tahvildar (cash keeper).

Sadr-us-Sudur

• The sadr-us-sudur headed the ecclesiastical department.
• Duties:
  • To protect the laws of the shari’at.
  • To oversee the distribution of charities, both cash (wazifa) and land grants (suyurghal, in’am, madad-i-ma’ash).
  • Initially, as head of the judicial department, he also supervised the appointment of qazis and muftis.
• Before Shah Jahan’s reign, the posts of the chief qazi and the sadr-us-sudur were combined, with a single person holding charge of both departments. Under Aurangzeb, however, the post of chief qazi (qazi-ul-quzzat) was separated from that of the sadr-us-sudur.
  • This separation led to a sharp curtailment of the sadr’s powers. Thereafter, in his capacity as sadr, he was left to supervise the assignment of allowances and look after charitable grants — ensuring these were given to the right persons and utilised properly.
  • He scrutinised applications for fresh and renewed grants and presented them before the Emperor for sanction; alms were also distributed through his office.

Qazi-ul-Quzzat

• The chief qazi, known as the qazi-ul-quzzat, headed the judiciary (prior to Aurangzeb’s reign, this office was combined with that of the sadr-us-sudur).
• Duty: To administer shariat law in both civil and criminal cases. As chief qazi, he was also responsible for appointing qazis at the suba, sarkar, pargana, and town levels; a separate qazi was appointed for the army as well.
• Besides the qazi-ul-quzzat, another important judicial officer was the mir ‘adl.
  • Abul Fazl emphasised the need for a mir ‘adl in addition to the qazi — while the qazi heard and decided the case, the mir ‘adl was responsible for executing the court’s orders.
• The muhtasib (censor of public morals) ensured the general observance of moral conduct.
  • His job was to check forbidden practices such as wine drinking, the use of bhang and other intoxicants, and gambling.
  • He also performed certain secular duties, such as examining weights and measures and enforcing fair prices.

Provincial Administration

• Akbar: In 1580, Akbar divided the Empire into twelve subas (three more were added later), organised in the hierarchy Suba > Sarkar > Pargana > Mahal.
• Shah Jahan: Introduced another administrative unit, the chakla, which was a cluster of several parganas, giving the hierarchy Pargana < Chakla < Mahal.

Provincial Governor (Subadar)

• The governor of a suba, the subadar, was directly appointed by the Emperor, usually for a tenure of around three years.
• Duties of the subadar:
  • The most important duty was to look after the welfare of the people and the army, and to maintain general law and order in the suba.
  • A successful subadar was one who encouraged agriculture, trade, and commerce.
  • He was expected to undertake welfare activities such as the construction of sarais, gardens, wells, and water reservoirs.
  • He was also required to take steps to enhance the revenue of the state.

Provincial Diwan

• The provincial diwan was appointed by the Emperor and functioned as an independent officer answerable directly to the Centre, heading the revenue department of the suba.
• Duties:
  • Supervised revenue collection in the suba and maintained accounts of all expenditure, including the salaries of officials and subordinates.
  • Took steps to increase the area under cultivation, often extending advance loans (taqavi) to peasants through his office.
  • Maintained a roznamcha (daily register) recording amounts deposited in the royal treasury by revenue officials and zamindars; a large number of clerks worked under him.
• By making the diwan independent of the subadar and placing financial matters under the former, the Mughals successfully checked the subadar from becoming too powerful or independent.

Provincial Bakhshi

• The provincial bakhshi was appointed by the imperial court on the recommendation of the mir bakhshi.
• Duties:
  • Performed, at the provincial level, exactly the same military functions as his counterpart at the Centre — checking and inspecting the horses and soldiers maintained by the mansabdars in the suba, and issuing the pay-bills of both mansabdars and soldiers.
  • Was responsible for preparing a list of deceased mansabdars, although the news reporters (waqai-navis) of the parganas often sent this information directly to the provincial diwan.
  • His office was frequently combined with that of the waqa’i-nigar, in which capacity his duty was to inform the Centre of developments in his province.
  • Posted agents in the parganas and other important offices to facilitate his work.

Darogha-i-Dak and the Secret Services

• Developing a communication network was essential to governing such a vast Empire, and a separate department was assigned this task.
• The imperial postal system was established for sending instructions to distant parts of the Empire and for receiving information through the same channel.
  • At every suba headquarters, a darogha-i-dak was appointed for this purpose.
  • His duty was to pass on letters through postal runners (mewras) to the court. A number of dak chowkis were maintained across the Empire, where runners were stationed to carry the post to the next chowki; horses and boats were also used to speed up delivery.
• Waqai-navis and waqai-nigars were appointed to supply reports directly to the Emperor, while the sawanih-nigar provided confidential reports to him.
  • Many reports of these secret service agents survive today and serve as important sources for the history of the period.
• Through such offices and institutions — kept independent of one another — the Mughals maintained a constant watch over their provincial officials. In addition, the Emperors’ frequent visits to every suba and the practice of transferring officials every three years, on average, helped in checking them. Yet the possibility of rebellion always existed, and hence a constant vigil was maintained through an organised system of intelligence.

Local Administration

Local administration under the Mughals may be discussed at the level of the sarkar, pargana, and mauza (village).

Sarkar-Level Administration

At the sarkar level, two functionaries were of particular importance: the faujdar and the amalguzar.

Faujdar:

• The executive head of the sarkar, though his actual area of influence was often more complex than this designation suggests.
  • He was not always appointed strictly at the sarkar level — sometimes several faujdars existed within a single sarkar, and at other times a single faujdar’s jurisdiction spread across two full sarkars. Faujdars were also occasionally appointed to chaklas, with jurisdiction decided according to the needs of the region.
• Duties:
  • To take care of rebellions and law-and-order problems, and to safeguard the life and property of residents within his jurisdiction.
  • To ensure safe passage for traders and to keep vigil over recalcitrant zamindars.
  • To assist the amalguzar in matters of revenue collection under special circumstances.

Amalguzar (also known as Amil):

• The most important revenue collector at the sarkar level.
• Duties:
  • To assess and supervise revenue collection through subordinate officials, and to increase the land under cultivation by inducing peasants to pay revenue willingly, without coercion.
  • To maintain all accounts and send daily receipts and expenditure reports to the provincial diwan.

Thanedar:

• The thana, headed by the thanedar, was a place where troops were stationed for the preservation of law and order, generally established in disturbed areas and around cities. Thanedars were also responsible for arranging provisions for the army.
• The thanedar was appointed on the recommendation of the subadar and diwan, and was generally placed under the faujdar of the area (Thanedar < Faujdar).

Pargana Administration

• In the administrative hierarchy, Pargana < Sarkar.
• The shiqqdar was the executive officer of the pargana and assisted the amils in revenue collection.
• The amil looked after revenue collection at the pargana level as well, with duties similar to those of the amalguzar at the sarkar level.
• The qanungo maintained all records pertaining to land in his area and kept note of the different crops cultivated in the pargana.

Village Administration

• The village was the lowest unit of administration.
• The muqaddam served as the village headman, while the patwari maintained village revenue records.
• Under the Mughals, the pattern of village administration remained largely unchanged from what it had been under Sher Shah.

Town, Fort, and Port Administration

To administer the cities and ports, the Mughals maintained a separate administrative machinery.

Kotwal

• For urban centres, the imperial court appointed kotwals.
• Duties:
  • To safeguard the life and property of townsmen and to maintain a register recording people entering and leaving the town — every outsider required a permit from the kotwal to enter or exit.
  • To ensure that no illicit liquor was manufactured within his jurisdiction.
  • To act as superintendent of the weights and measures used by merchants and shopkeepers.

Qil’adar

• The Mughal Empire had a large number of qilas (forts), many located at strategically important places; each fortress functioned almost like a mini-township with a large garrison.
• Each fort was placed under an officer called the qil’adar, generally a mansabdar of high rank.
  • He was in charge of the general administration of the fort and of the areas assigned in jagir to him, and was sometimes asked to perform the duties of a faujdar in that region.

Port Administration

• The Mughals were well aware of the economic importance of sea-ports as centres of brisk commercial activity, and port administration was kept independent of provincial authority.
• The governor of the ports, called the mutasaddi, was directly appointed by the Emperor; on occasion, this office was even auctioned to the highest bidder.
  • The mutasaddi collected taxes on merchandise, maintained a custom-house, and also supervised the mint-house at the port.
  • The shahbandar, his subordinate, was mainly concerned with the functioning of the custom-house.

The Mughal Army

The Mughal army consisted of cavalry, infantry, artillery, elephants, and camels. There was no navy as such, though a flotilla of boats existed under an amir-ul-bahr (Lord of the Sea, or Admiral).

Cavalry

• The dagh system (branding system) was employed to maintain an efficient and well-equipped force of cavalry.
• Cavalrymen rode choice horses procured from Iraq, Iran, and Arabia, and were protected by iron helmets and other defensive armour; their horses too had their necks, chests, and backs fully covered. The sawars were armed with swords, lances, and bows.
• Every trooper had to purchase his own horse and present it at the muster before his pay was sanctioned — a requirement that caused considerable harassment and became a basis for corruption.
  • To address this, a rule was introduced whereby a newly appointed mansabdar was granted an ad hoc pay called barawardi for his contingent, adjusted once the full pay was granted to the sawars after the muster.
  • This too became a source of corruption, as nobles delayed the muster while continuing to draw barawardi salaries for a nominal force.
• Dakhili: In some cases, the state directly employed soldiers and assigned them to high mansabdars; such troopers were called dakhili.
• Ahadi: A separate category of “gentlemen troopers,” the ahadis, were individuals permitted to maintain five horses or more and were paid handsomely.
  • They had a separate muster-master, or diwan, and could be appointed anywhere in the army, including as messengers or, on occasion, alongside a mansabdar.

Artillery

• Artillery developed rapidly in India after the advent of Babur. In addition to siege guns, heavy guns were also mounted on forts.
  • These siege guns were not easily manoeuvrable, and elephants or thousands of bullocks were often used to transport them. Though frequently regarded as symbols of prestige, they were of limited use in actual battle owing to their slow rate of fire.
  • Their efficacy against forts was also doubtful, as demonstrated at the siege of Chittor, where mining beneath the fort walls with gunpowder was instead resorted to.
• Light artillery: Several types of light artillery existed alongside the heavy guns —
  • Guns carried on the back of a man were called narnal.
  • Guns carried on the backs of elephants were called gajanal.
  • Guns carried on the backs of camels were called shutrnal.
  • Guns mounted on wheeled carriages (arraba) were notably used at the Battles of Panipat and Khanua.
• Akbar made great efforts to improve the casting and transportability of guns:
  • He invented a gun that could be dismantled into pieces and reassembled when required.
  • He also devised a system whereby 17 guns could be joined together and fired using a single match.
  • Akbar took a keen interest in the manufacture and improvement of hand-muskets, and a device was invented whereby the barrels of hand-guns could be bored and cleaned using a machine drawn by an ox.

Elephants

• Under Akbar, thousands of elephants were used for war, and they were carefully graded and armed.
• Besides carrying materials of war, royalty, and important nobles, elephants — when combined with cavalry — formed a kind of battering ram or protective shield, though they tended to become helpless when surrounded by hostile cavalry.

Infantry

• The infantry comprised both fighting and non-fighting classes.
• Fighting men: mainly matchlock-men, called banduqchis, who had their own organisation complete with clerks, a treasurer, and a darogha.
  • Dakhili soldiers: foot-soldiers and matchlock-men recruited and paid directly by the central government and then handed over to high mansabdars.
• Non-fighting classes: About a quarter of the fighting force consisted of bearers of matchlocks, carpenters, blacksmiths, water-carriers, and pioneers who cleared the way, along with runners for carrying messages, palki-bearers, wrestlers, and slaves.

Strength of Akbar’s Army

• According to Monserrate (1581), the army comprised 45,000 cavalry, 5,000 elephants, and many thousands of infantry, all paid directly from the royal treasury.
• The strength of the cavalry maintained by the mansabdars is harder to assess, since in the early period a mansab did not indicate the actual number of sawars maintained, and later, sawar ranks are known for only a few. It can reasonably be said that the number of sawars maintained by the mansabdars was not less than those maintained centrally.

Nature of Mughal Administration

The debate over the true character of the Mughal administrative system — whether it was highly centralised or not — remains one of the most important historiographical discussions in Mughal Empire administration.

• Irfan Habib and Athar Ali hold that the Mughal administrative structure was highly centralised, a centralisation manifested in the efficient working of the land revenue system, the mansab and jagir institutions, and uniform coinage.
• Stephen P. Blake and J.F. Richards accept the centralising tendencies of the Empire but characterise it as a “patrimonial-bureaucratic” state, in which everything centred around the imperial household and the vast bureaucracy.
• Streusand and Chetan Singh, on the other hand, argue that despite being centralised in theory, the Mughal structure was less centralised at its periphery.
  • In Chetan Singh’s view, even in the seventeenth century, the Mughal Empire was not very centralised. The idea that the state’s structure was tightly controlled through the efficient working of the jagirdari system holds little ground, since jagir transfers were not as frequent as they appear, and local elements at the periphery were often successful in influencing policies at the centre.

Thus, the extent to which the Mughal Empire was centralised in practice remains a matter of debate; however, theoretically, the Mughal administrative structure was designed to be highly centralised and bureaucratic in nature. The Emperor was the fountainhead of all power, and the bureaucracy was regarded as mere banda-i-dargah (slaves of the court). Even so, despite the vast range of powers enjoyed by the central ministers, none was permitted to usurp or interfere in the jurisdiction of another, nor to assume autocratic powers — the Mughals, through a carefully maintained system of checks and balances, prevented any single minister or officer from acquiring unlimited authority.

(The Nature of the Mughal State is discussed in further detail in a separate topic.)