Indian Literature: Ancient, Medieval, and Modern Literature

• Indian literature is one of the oldest and most diverse literary traditions in the world.
• It encompasses a wide range of languages, scripts, genres, and styles developed over millennia.
• It includes oral traditions, religious texts, secular works, epics, dramas, poetry, and scientific treatises.
• Indian literary heritage can broadly be classified based on chronological development, language medium, and thematic content into three major periods:
  1. Ancient Indian Literature –
     • Composed in Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, and Tamil.
     • Mostly religious, philosophical, and epic in nature.
     • Literature was initially oral, later written down.
  2. Medieval Indian Literature –
     • Rise of regional/vernacular languages: Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Kannada, Telugu, etc.
     • Dominated by Bhakti and Sufi movements.
     • Focus on devotion, morality, social reform, and mysticism.
  3. Modern Indian Literature –
     • Shaped by colonial influence, Western education, and print technology.
     • Emergence of modern prose, novels, essays, and journalistic writing.
     • Literature became a tool of social reform and national awakening.

Ancient Indian Literature

• Ancient Indian literature refers to texts composed from 1500 BCE to 600 CE, covering the Vedic, Epic, Buddhist, Jain, Classical Sanskrit, and Sangam traditions.
• Major languages: Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit, Tamil.
• Themes: Religious, philosophical, mythological, scientific, poetic, and narrative.
• It was primarily oral in the early phases and later codified in written form.

📜 Vedic Literature (1500 BCE – 600 BCE)

🪶 Four Vedas

• Written in Vedic Sanskrit.
• Rigveda:
  • Oldest of all; 1,028 hymns dedicated to natural forces (Agni, Indra, Varuna).
  • Composed by various Rishis (sages).
• Samaveda:
  • Liturgical use; chants and melodies for sacrifices.
  • Basis of Indian classical music.
• Yajurveda:
  • Prose and verse formulas for rituals.
  • Two types: Krishna (Black) and Shukla (White) Yajurveda.
• Atharvaveda:
  • Contains magic spells, charms, and folk traditions.
  • Reflects popular beliefs and practices.

🪶 Brahmanas

• Prose texts explaining the sacrificial rituals.
• Attached to each Veda.
• Examples: Aitareya Brahmana, Shatapatha Brahmana.

🪶 Aranyakas

• Known as “Forest Books”.
• Transition from ritualism to mysticism.
• Meant for hermits and forest-dwellers.

🪶 Upanishads

• Also called Vedanta (end of the Vedas).
• Focus on metaphysical philosophy: Brahman (universal soul), Atman (individual soul).
• Around 108 Upanishads, notable ones:
  • Chandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Kena, Isha, Katha, Mundaka.
• Influence on Indian spiritual thought, later Vedanta school.

🪶 Vedangas

• The Vedangas (meaning “limbs of the Vedas”) are auxiliary disciplines developed to understand, preserve, and interpret the Vedic texts.
• They are not part of the Vedas, but they support the Vedic tradition by providing the necessary tools for recitation, ritual performance, and linguistic clarity.
• The term Vedanga appears in the later Vedic period, especially in the post-Vedic Smriti literature.
• There are six Vedangas, each addressing a different aspect essential for Vedic scholarship and rituals.
  • 🗣️ Shiksha (Phonetics and Pronunciation)
    • Deals with sound, intonation, accent, syllabic length, and pronunciation rules.
    • Purpose: To ensure accurate oral transmission of Vedic hymns.
    • Example texts: Paniniya Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha.
  • 📜 Vyakarana (Grammar)
    • Concerned with rules of Sanskrit grammar.
    • Enables the correct interpretation of Vedic texts.
    • Most important work: Ashtadhyayi by Panini (4th century BCE).
    • Other works: Mahabhashya by Patanjali.
  • 📖 Nirukta (Etymology and Interpretation)
    • Explains the origins and meanings of difficult Vedic words.
    • Helps understand the symbolism and context of Vedic terms.
    • Major work: Nirukta by Yaska – the oldest known Indian treatise on etymology.
  • 📏 Chandas (Metrics or Prosody)
    • Studies the metrical structure of Vedic hymns.
    • Ensures rhythmic accuracy in chanting.
    • Common meters: Gayatri, Anushtubh, Trishtubh, Jagati.
    • Text: Chandah Shastra by Pingala.
  • 🔥 Kalpa (Ritual Instructions)
    • Prescribes rules and procedures for Vedic rituals and sacrifices.
    • Subdivided into:
      • Shrauta Sutras – for public rituals.
      • Grihya Sutras – for domestic rituals.
      • Dharma Sutras – dealing with moral laws and social conduct.
    • Basis of later Smriti texts and law codes like Manusmriti.
  • 🌠 Jyotisha (Astronomy and Astrology)
    • Deals with auspicious timing (muhurta) for rituals and sacrifices.
    • Includes astronomical calculations, positions of celestial bodies, and calendar science.
    • Earliest known Indian treatise: Vedanga Jyotisha by Lagadha.

🪶 Upavedas

• The term “Upaveda” means “applied knowledge” or “subsidiary Veda”.
• Upavedas are traditional texts that deal with practical disciplines derived from the philosophical and ritual knowledge of the Vedas.
• While not part of the core Vedas, they represent the applied sciences rooted in Vedic thought.
• Four Major Upavedas and Their Associations:
  • 🧴 Ayurveda – Science of Life and Medicine
    • Associated Veda: Rigveda
    • Focuses on health, medicine, diagnosis, treatment, surgery, herbal knowledge, and longevity.
    • Important texts:
      • Charaka Samhita (medicine)
      • Sushruta Samhita (surgery)
  • 🏹 Dhanurveda – Science of Archery and Warfare
    • Associated Veda: Yajurveda
    • Covers military science, archery, battle formations, weapons training, and strategy.
    • Also includes codes of warrior conduct.
  • 🎶 Gandharvaveda – Science of Music and Performing Arts
    • Associated Veda: Samaveda
    • Deals with music, vocal performance, instrumental music, dance, and dramatic arts.
    • Considered the root of Indian classical music and Natya Shastra tradition.
  • ⚔️ Shastrashastra – Science of Weapons and Technology

📜 Epic Literature

Ramayana

• Written by Valmiki.
• 7 Kandas (books), ~24,000 verses.
• Story of Rama, Sita, Ravana – ideal of dharma, devotion, and duty.
• Multiple versions across India – Tulsidas’ Ramcharitmanas (Hindi), Kamba Ramayanam (Tamil).

Mahabharata

• Written by Ved Vyasa.
• Over 100,000 shlokas, making it the world’s longest epic.
• Story of the Kauravas and Pandavas.
• Contains the Bhagavad Gita – dialogue between Krishna and Arjuna, espouses Karma Yoga, Bhakti, and Jnana.
• Rich source of ethical and philosophical discourse.

📜 Puranic Literature

• Puranas = “ancient” or “old narratives”.
• Contains myths, legends, cosmology, genealogies, moral codes.
• 18 Mahapuranas and 18 Upapuranas.
• Key Mahapuranas:
  • Vishnu Purana
  • Shiva Purana
  • Bhagavata Purana
  • Markandeya Purana (contains Devi Mahatmya)
• Provided religious and cultural unity by integrating Vedic and folk beliefs.

📜 Buddhist Literature

• Buddhist literature forms a significant part of ancient Indian literary heritage, offering insights into Buddhism, philosophy, ethics, society, and culture of ancient India.
• It was primarily composed in Pali, but also in Sanskrit, Prakrit, Tibetan, and Chinese.
• Initially oral, these texts were later written down in councils to preserve the teachings of the Buddha and to standardize doctrines.
• Buddhist literature is mainly classified into:
  • Canonical Literature (i.e., Tipitaka or Tripitaka)
  • Non-Canonical Literature (commentaries, stories, philosophical texts)

Canonical Literature – Tripitaka

📘 1. Vinaya Pitaka – Basket of Discipline

• Contains rules and regulations for the monastic order (Sangha).
• Includes the Patimokkha – a code of conduct with over 227 rules for monks and 311 rules for nuns.
• Details procedures for:
  • Ordination of monks/nuns
  • Punishments for violations
  • Monastery administration

📗 2. Sutta Pitaka – Basket of Discourses

• Contains the sermons and teachings of Gautama Buddha.
• Divided into five Nikayas:
  1. Digha Nikaya – long discourses (e.g., Mahaparinibbana Sutta)
  2. Majjhima Nikaya – middle-length discourses
  3. Samyutta Nikaya – grouped by topics
  4. Anguttara Nikaya – numerically arranged teachings
  5. Khuddaka Nikaya – a miscellaneous collection (includes Dhammapada, Jataka tales, Sutta Nipata)
• Key Texts:
  • Dhammapada: Verses of wisdom and ethics; one of the most quoted Buddhist scriptures.
  • Jataka Tales: Stories of Buddha’s previous lives; teach moral lessons.

📙 3. Abhidhamma Pitaka – Basket of Higher Doctrine

• Contains philosophical and psychological analysis of the teachings.
• Elaborates on the nature of mind, mental factors, reality, and metaphysics.
• More abstract and systematic compared to the Sutta Pitaka.

Non-Canonical Buddhist Literature

Jataka Tales

• Present in both canonical and non-canonical sources.
• Narrate the previous births of the Buddha (Bodhisattva).
• Often used in folk traditions, moral education, and temple carvings.
• Famous tale: Vessantara Jataka – story of ultimate charity.

Avadanas

• Similar to Jataka tales but more didactic and miracle-based.
• Popular in Mahayana tradition.
• Example: Divyavadana – Sanskrit collection of Buddhist legends.

Buddhacharita by Ashvaghosha

• A Sanskrit epic poem on the life of the Buddha.
• Reflects classical Sanskrit literary style.
• Blends devotional biography with poetic elegance.

Milindapanho (The Questions of King Milinda)

• A Pali dialogue between Indo-Greek King Menander (Milinda) and monk Nagasena.
• Deals with philosophical questions like self, soul, rebirth, and nirvana.
• Highlights Buddhist logical and analytical thinking.

Lalitavistara

• A Mahayana Sanskrit text narrating the life story of Buddha with mythical embellishments.
• Popular among Tibetan Buddhists.

Mahavastu

• Semi-historical Mahayana text written in mixed Sanskrit-Prakrit.
• Describes early life of Buddha, monastic discipline, and Bodhisattva path.

📜 Jain Literature

• Jain literature refers to the religious, philosophical, and ethical writings of the Jain tradition.
• It is composed in various languages including Prakrit, Ardhamagadhi, Sanskrit, Apabhramsha, and later in Kannada and Tamil.
• Offers insights into religious doctrines, philosophy, cosmology, ethics, and social life.
• Divided into:
  • Canonical (Agama) Literature
  • Non-Canonical (Commentarial and Philosophical) Literature

Canonical Jain Literature – Agamas

📘 Agamas:

• Canonical scriptures of the Svetambara sect.
• Said to be based on the teachings of Lord Mahavira, compiled by his Gandharas (chief disciples).
• There are 45 Agamas (as per Svetambaras), grouped into:
  • 11 Angas (limbs)
  • 12 Upangas (sub-limbs)
  • 10 Prakirnakas (miscellaneous texts)
  • 6 Chedasutras (monastic rules)
  • 4 Mulasutras (basic texts for monks)
  • 2 Chulikasutras (appendices)

📚 11 Angas:

1. Acharanga Sutra – Rules of conduct and ascetic life of monks.
2. Sutrakritanga Sutra – Refutes non-Jain philosophies; discusses Jain doctrines.
3. Sthananga Sutra – Jain teachings arranged in numerical categories.
4. Samavayanga Sutra – Numerical listing of metaphysical and cosmological concepts.
5. Vyakhya Prajnapti (Bhagavati Sutra) – Dialogues on cosmology and philosophy.
6. Jnatadharmakatha Sutra – Moral stories illustrating Jain ethics.
7. Upasakadasa Sutra – Stories of ideal lay followers (upasakas).
8. Antakritdasa Sutra – Lives of those who attained liberation.
9. Anuttaropapatika Sutra – Stories of souls reborn in highest heavens.
10. Prashnavyakarana Sutra – Classification of questions and philosophical answers.
11. Vipaka Sutra – Explains results of karma through stories.
    • 🟥 Note: The 12th Anga – Drishtivada is considered lost.

Non-Canonical Jain Literature

• Refers to texts composed outside the Jain Agamas (canon).
• These works interpret, elaborate, or expand on canonical teachings or focus on philosophy, ethics, cosmology, biographies, and logic.
• Authored by Jain acharyas, scholars, poets, and monks, in languages like Sanskrit, Prakrit, Apabhramsha, Kannada, and Tamil.
• Accepted by both Svetambara and Digambara sects (though preferences may differ).
• Key Characteristics:
  • Emphasis on logic (nyaya), metaphysics, moral stories, and doctrinal debates.
  • Serve as commentaries, manuals for monks, ethical treatises, and biographies of Tirthankaras.
  • Used to preserve doctrines after many Agamas were lost (especially by the Digambaras).

Major Non-Canonical Jain Texts & Authors

• Tattvartha Sutra – by Acharya Umasvati (Umasvami)
  • First Jain text in Sanskrit; accepted by both Digambaras and Svetambaras.
  • Systematic summary of Jain philosophy – karma, cosmology, ethics, liberation.
  • Also called Moksha Shastra.
• Shatkhandagam – by Acharya Pushpadanta and Bhutabali
  • One of the oldest Digambara texts.
  • Describes karma theory and soul classification.
• Kashayapahuda (Treatise on Passions) – by Acharya Gunadhara
  • Explains how passions (kashayas) bind karmas to the soul.
• Samayasara – by Acharya Kundakunda
  • Focuses on the nature of the self, soul, and liberation.
  • Highly revered in Digambara tradition.
• Niyamasara – by Kundakunda
  • Explains ethics and spiritual discipline for ascetics and householders.
• Pravachanasara – by Kundakunda
  • Discusses true religion (dharma) and spiritual conduct.
• Panchastikayasara – by Kundakunda
  • Classification of five real entities (astikayas) in Jain metaphysics.
• Kalpasutra – by Bhadrabahu
  • Includes biographies of Tirthankaras, especially Mahavira.
  • Read publicly during Paryushan festival by Svetambaras.
• Trishashti-Shalaka-Purusha-Charita – by Acharya Hemachandra
  • Epic in Sanskrit; biographies of 63 great Jain figures (Tirthankaras, Chakravartins, etc.).
• Anekantajayapataka – by Haribhadra Suri
  • Explains the principle of Anekantavada (multiplicity of viewpoints).
  • Promotes tolerance and philosophical synthesis.
• Lokavibhaga – Cosmological text in Prakrit explaining Jain universe.
• Yasovijaya’s Works – 17th-century philosopher
  • Wrote extensively on logic (Jain Nyaya), metaphysics, and dialogues.
  • Notable for rational approach to religious doctrine.

📜 Classical Sanskrit Literature

• Refers to the body of literary works composed in Sanskrit language after the Vedic period.
• Marked by refined grammar, ornate style, and rich vocabulary.
• Reflects the philosophy, values, drama, poetry, and science of ancient India.
• Became the dominant literary language for royal courts, scholars, and religious texts across India.
• While Vedic Sanskrit was ritualistic, Classical Sanskrit was secular, poetic, dramatic, and philosophical.
• Flourished during the Gupta period (4th–6th century CE), called “Golden Age of Sanskrit”.
• Major Themes:
  • Poetry (Kavya) – Epic and lyrical poetry, court poetry, and descriptive poems.
  • Drama (Natya) – Sanskrit plays portraying royal life, mythology, and human emotions.
  • Prose (Gadya) – Narrative stories, fables, and philosophical treatises.
  • Epics (Mahakavyas) – Grand poetic compositions with heroic themes.
  • Didactic Texts – Ethics, politics, science, grammar, and moral instructions.

Major Authors and Their Works

• Kalidasa (Gupta Era, 4th–5th Century CE)
  • Regarded as the greatest Sanskrit poet and dramatist.
  • Known for imagery, nature metaphors, and romanticism.
  • Major Works:
    • Abhijnanasakuntalam – Love story of Shakuntala and King Dushyanta (drama).
    • Meghaduta – A messenger poem where a Yaksha sends a message through a cloud.
    • Raghuvamsa – Epic poem detailing the lineage of Lord Rama.
    • Kumarasambhavam – Poem on the birth of Kartikeya.
• Bhasa (Possibly 3rd Century BCE)
  • One of the earliest Sanskrit playwrights, rediscovered in the 20th century.
  • His works depict human emotions and heroic values.
  • Notable Plays:
    • Svapnavasavadattam – Political romance.
    • Urubhanga – Portrays the inner transformation of Duryodhana.
    • Pratijna Yaugandharayana – Political drama with strategists as heroes.
• Sudraka
  • Wrote Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart) – A romantic and social play with urban realism, love, and politics.
• Vishakhadatta
  • Famous for Mudrarakshasa – A political thriller set in the Mauryan period, focusing on Chanakya’s diplomacy.
• Bhavabhuti (8th Century CE)
  • Known for intense emotional expression and philosophical themes.
  • Plays:
    • Malatimadhava – Romantic and horror elements.
    • Mahaviracharita – Heroic life of Rama.
    • Uttararamacharita – Continuation of Rama’s story after exile.
• Banabhatta (7th Century CE)
  • Court poet of Harshavardhana.
  • Works:
    • Harshacharita – Biography of King Harsha.
    • Kadambari – Romantic prose novel filled with symbolism and reincarnation.
• Dandin
  • Known for prose and poetics.
  • Works:
    • Dashakumaracharita – Adventures of ten princes.
    • Kavyadarsha – Foundational text on Sanskrit poetics (Alankaras).
• Magha
  • Author of Shishupalavadha, a Mahakavya on Krishna’s slaying of Shishupala.
  • Known for linguistic complexity.
• Bharavi
  • Wrote Kiratarjuniya – Describes Arjuna’s combat with Lord Shiva.
• Jayadeva (12th Century CE)
  • Composer of the Gita Govinda, a devotional lyric on Radha-Krishna love.
  • Highly influential in the Bhakti movement.
• Somadeva
  • Author of Kathasaritsagara – A massive compilation of folktales and legends.

🔬 Scientific Texts

• Panini – Ashtadhyayi
  • Earliest and most scientific grammar book in the world.
  • Formalizes Classical Sanskrit grammar using algorithmic rules.
• Aryabhata – Aryabhatiya
  • A treatise on mathematics and astronomy.
  • Discussed concepts of zero, π (pi), and planetary motion.
• Varahamihira – Brihat Samhita
  • An encyclopedic text on astrology, meteorology, architecture, etc.
  • Also wrote Pancha Siddhantika on astronomical systems.
• Charaka – Charaka Samhita
  • Foundational text on Ayurveda (medicine).
  • Discusses physiology, diagnosis, and treatment.
• Sushruta – Sushruta Samhita
  • Focused on surgery (Shalya Tantra).
  • Contains details on plastic surgery, anatomy, and surgical instruments.
• Kautilya (Chanakya) – Arthashastra
  • Manual on statecraft, economy, administration, and espionage.
  • A unique blend of political science and practical governance.
• Patanjali – Yoga Sutras
  • Foundational text on Yoga philosophy.
  • Emphasizes mental discipline, self-control, and meditative techniques.

📜 Sangam Literature (Tamil)

• Sangam Literature refers to the earliest known Tamil literature composed during the Sangam Age.
• “Sangam” means academy or assembly of Tamil poets and scholars.
• Compiled in three Sangams (academies) supposedly held in ancient South India, mainly at Madurai.
• It forms the primary literary source for early Tamil history, culture, society, and politics.

Major Works

• Ettuthogai (Eight Anthologies)
  • Also called “Eight Collections” of poetry.
  • Contains short and long poems by multiple poets.
  • Includes:
    • Ainkurunuru
    • Narrinai
    • Kuruntokai
    • Paripadal
    • Kalittokai
    • Akananuru
    • Purananuru
    • Pathirruppathu
• Pathupattu (Ten Idylls)
  • A collection of ten long poems.
  • Deals with both Akam (love) and Puram (war/valor) themes.
  • Includes:
    • Thirumurugarruppadai
    • Porunaratruppadai
    • Perumpanarruppatai
    • Mullaippattu
    • Maduraikkanchi
    • Nedunalvadai
    • Kurinjippattu
    • Pattinappalai
    • Malaipadukadam
    • Thiruvalluva Maalai (sometimes included separately)
• Tolkappiyam
  • Oldest extant Tamil grammar text.
  • Attributed to Tolkappiyar, a disciple of sage Agastya.
  • Divided into:
    • Ezhuttu (phonetics)
    • Sol (morphology and syntax)
    • Porul (semantics and themes)
• Pattupattu & Other Didactic Works
  • Thirukkural by Thiruvalluvar – Classical ethical treatise with 1330 couplets on virtue (Dharma), wealth (Artha), and love (Kama).
  • Naladiyar, Acharakkovai – Didactic literature with moral sayings and wisdom.

✍️ Famous Poets

• Avvaiyar
  • Most famous female poet of Sangam Age.
  • Known for her simple, moralistic, and didactic poems.
  • Advocated values like charity, wisdom, and humility.
  • Wrote in both early Sangam and post-Sangam periods.
• Kapilar
  • Close friend and court poet of Vel Pari (a Velir chieftain).
  • Composed over 200 poems in Akananuru and Purananuru.
  • Known for emotional depth, loyalty, and patronage poetry.
• Nakkeerar
  • Scholar and chief poet of the Madurai Sangam.
  • Famous for his role in defending the sanctity of Shiva’s poem against the challenge by the king.
  • Wrote Tirumurugarruppadai, praising Lord Murugan.
• Paranar
  • Poet in the courts of several kings including Chola, Chera, and Pandya rulers.
  • Specialized in Puram (external life) themes like warfare, generosity, and heroism.
• Uraiyur Mudukannan Sattanar
  • Authored Madurai Kanji, part of Pattuppāṭṭu (Ten Idylls).
  • Describes urban life, trade, and royal patronage in Pandya capital Madurai.
• Perunkunrur Kilar
  • A Brahmin poet and social reformer.
  • Urged kings to rule justly and criticized them for their faults.
• Mamulanar
  • Contributed to Purananuru and Akanauru.
  • Often wrote on social values, ethics, and historical events.
• Alangudi Vanganar
  • Composed poems with economic and trade-related themes.
  • Mentioned Roman trade, overseas merchants, and maritime wealth.
• Orampokiyar
  • Known for his vivid war descriptions and valor of Tamil kings.
• Auvaiyar (Post-Sangam)
  • Not to be confused with Sangam Avvaiyar.
  • Wrote Aathichoodi and Kondrai Venthan—famous Tamil ethical texts.

Medieval Indian Literature

• Covers literary works from the early medieval (8th century) to the late medieval (18th century) period.
• The Medieval period in India saw a diversification of regional languages and the rise of devotional (Bhakti and Sufi) literature.
• It marked the decline of Sanskrit as a dominant literary language and the emergence of vernacular languages like Hindi, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Bengali, and Persian.
• The literature of this period was deeply influenced by religion, mysticism, social reform, and cultural synthesis.

Sanskrit Literature (8th – 18th Century CE)

• Abhinavagupta (c. 950 – 1016 CE, Kashmir)
  • A polymath: philosopher, aesthetician, mystic, and scholar.
  • Major Works:
    • Tantraloka – Encyclopedia on Kashmir Shaivism and Tantra.
    • Abhinavabharati – Commentary on Bharata’s Natyashastra (established the theory of Rasa in Indian aesthetics).
  • Significance: Integrated aesthetics with metaphysics. Central to Shaiva philosophy and classical art theory.
• Kshemendra (11th century, Kashmir)
  • Known for didactic, satirical, and abridged versions of classical epics.
  • Major Works:
    • Deshopadesha – Political and social satire.
    • Kalavilasa – Critique of decadence and corruption.
    • Ramayanamanjari, Bharatamanjari – Abridged poetic versions of Ramayana and Mahabharata.
  • Significance: Offers valuable social commentary on medieval life.
• Bhoja Deva (11th century, Paramara dynasty, Malwa)
  • King and scholar, patron of Sanskrit literature.
  • Major Works:
    • Sarasvati-Kanthabharana – Treatise on Sanskrit grammar and poetics.
    • Rajamartanda – Commentary on Yoga Sutras.
    • Credited with Shingara Prakasha on aesthetics.
  • Significance: Reinforced royal patronage of Sanskrit learning.
• Jayadeva (12th century, Bengal/Odisha)
  • Devotional Sanskrit poet, associated with Vaishnavism.
  • Major Work:
    • Gita Govinda – Erotic devotional poetry on Radha-Krishna.
  • Significance: Inspired Bhakti poets across India; deeply influential in dance, music, and temple rituals.
• Appaya Dikshita (16th century, Tamil Nadu)
  • Scholar and poet of Advaita Vedanta.
  • Major Works:
    • Kuvalayananda – Treatise on poetics.
    • Parimala – Commentary on Brahmasutra Bhashya.
    • Yatindra-mata-dipika – Work on Vishishtadvaita.
  • Significance: Bridge between Advaita and Vishishtadvaita traditions; a major figure in Dravidian Sanskrit scholarship.
• Vedanta Desika (13th–14th century, Tamil Nadu)
  • Philosopher-poet of Sri Vaishnavism.
  • Major Works:
    • Yadavabhyudaya – Epic poem on Krishna.
    • Shatadushani – Refutation of Advaita.
    • Paduka Sahasra – Devotional poem on Ramanuja’s sandals.
  • Significance: Articulated Vishishtadvaita philosophy in elegant Sanskrit poetry.
• Madhava Vidyaranya (14th century, Vijayanagar Empire)
  • Key figure in founding Vijayanagara.
  • Major Works:
    • Sarvadarshanasamgraha – Survey of Indian philosophical systems.
    • Panchadasi – Vedantic text.
  • Significance: Integrated Vedanta into political revivalism.
• Nilakantha Chaturdhara (17th century, Varanasi)
  • Commentator on Mahabharata.
  • Major Work:
    • Bharata Bhava Deepa – Commentary on Mahabharata.
  • Significance: Important for Puranic and Itihasa interpretation in the medieval era.
• Narayana Bhatta (Kerala, 16th century)
  • Author of Smriti texts and ritual manuals.
  • Wrote in Sanskrit with regional inflections.
  • Works: Prayoga Ratnamala, Smarta Prayoga.

Persian Literature

• Persian became the official court language under the Delhi Sultanate and remained so throughout the Mughal period.
• Persian literature included histories (tarikh), biographies (tazkiras), Sufi texts, poetry, prose, and translations of Sanskrit works.

Persian Literature under the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE)

• Amir Khusrau (1253–1325 CE)
  • Court poet of 7 Sultans, notably Alauddin Khilji.
  • Prolific in Persian poetry and early Hindavi/Urdu.
  • Works:
    • Tughlaqnama – On Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
    • Nuh Sipihr – Cosmography and praise of India.
    • Qiran-us-Sa’dain – Meeting of Bughra Khan and Jalaluddin Khilji.
    • Khazain-ul-Futuh – Military exploits of Alauddin Khilji.
    • Ashiqah – Romantic masnavi.
  • Contribution: Blended Persian literary traditions with Indian themes; called “Tuti-e-Hind” (Parrot of India).
• Ziauddin Barani (1285–1357 CE)
  • Historian and political theorist under Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Shah.
  • Works:
    • Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi – History of Delhi Sultans (Balban to Firoz Shah).
    • Fatwa-i-Jahandari – Political treatise emphasizing Muslim supremacy.
  • Contribution: Combined Islamic orthodoxy with realpolitik.
• Minhaj-i-Siraj (13th century)
  • Chief Qazi of Delhi under Nasiruddin Mahmud.
  • Work: Tabaqat-i-Nasiri – Biographical chronicle of Islamic rulers.
  • Importance: Major source for early Sultanate history.
• Fakhr-i-Mudabbir
  • Work: Adab-ul-Harb wa al-Shujaat – Manual on war and military tactics.
  • Significance: Reflects military organization and ethos of Delhi Sultanate.

Persian Literature under the Mughals (1526–1707 CE)

• Abul Fazl (1551–1602 CE)
  • Principal court historian and adviser to Akbar.
  • Works:
    • Akbarnama – Official biography of Akbar (3 volumes).
    • Ain-i-Akbari – Administration, economy, military, and society.
  • Contribution: Introduced secular, humanist historiography; vital administrative data.
• Faizi (1547–1595 CE)
  • Brother of Abul Fazl; poet laureate in Akbar’s court.
  • Works:
    • Nal-Daman – Adaptation of Sanskrit story Nala-Damayanti.
    • Translated Bhagavad Gita and other Sanskrit texts into Persian.
  • Contribution: Symbol of Indo-Persian cultural synthesis.
• Badauni (c. 1540–1605 CE)
  • Conservative historian and critic of Akbar’s religious innovations.
  • Work: Muntakhab-ut-Tawarikh – Chronological history till Akbar.
  • Contribution: Presents critical and orthodox perspective on Akbar’s reign.
• Nizamuddin Ahmad (d. 1594 CE)
  • Court historian under Akbar.
  • Work: Tabaqat-i-Akbari – General history from Ghazni to Akbar.
  • Contribution: Source for Mughal and pre-Mughal history.
• Abdul Qadir Badauni
  • Another name in historical writing, known for:
    • Translations of Hindu texts like Ramayana and Mahabharata into Persian under Akbar’s orders.
• Muhammad Qasim Ferishta (1560–1620 CE)
  • Historian under Bijapur Sultanate.
  • Work: Tarikh-i-Ferishta or Gulshan-i-Ibrahimi – History of India from ancient times to Akbar.
  • Contribution: Important for Deccan and early Indian history.
• Inayat Khan
  • Court historian of Shah Jahan.
  • Work: Shah Jahan Nama – Official chronicle of Shah Jahan’s reign.
  • Importance: Insight into Mughal administration and court culture.
• Other Notable Writers
  • Mutamid Khan – Iqbalnama-i-Jahangiri (history of Jahangir).
  • Khwafi Khan – Muntakhab-ul-Lubab – Later Mughal history (Aurangzeb to early 18th century).
  • Mirza Nathan – Baharistan-i-Ghaibi – Chronicles of Bengal and Assam under Mughals.

Bhakti Literature

• Bhakti Movement (7th – 17th century) led to the creation of rich devotional literature in various regional languages.
• It aimed at personal devotion to God, often challenging Brahmanical orthodoxy, caste, rituals, and religious exclusivism.
• Bhakti literature was composed in vernacular languages and became a medium for social reform, spiritual awakening, and literary evolution.

1. Alvars and Nayanars (Tamil Nadu)

• 📌 Period: 6th–9th Century CE (Early Bhakti Movement)
• Alvars (Vaishnavites):
  • Key Poets: Nammalvar, Andal, Periyalvar, Kulasekhara.
  • Work: Nalayira Divya Prabandham (4000 Tamil hymns).
  • Philosophy: Devotion to Vishnu.
• Nayanars (Shaivites):
  • Key Poets: Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar, Manikkavachakar.
  • Work: Tevaram, Tiruvachakam.
  • Philosophy: Devotion to Shiva.

2. Kannada Bhakti Saints

• Basavanna (12th century):
  • Founder of Virashaiva/Lingayat movement.
  • Work: Vachanas (prose-poems).
  • Philosophy: Monotheism, anti-caste, equality, work ethic.
• Akka Mahadevi, Allama Prabhu – Major Vachana writers.

3. Maharashtra Bhakti Saints (13th–17th Century)

• Jnaneshwar (13th c.):
  • Work: Jnaneshwari – Marathi commentary on the Gita.
  • Philosophy: Varkari sect, Sant tradition, Advaita Vedanta.
• Namdev:
  • Hymns included in Guru Granth Sahib.
  • Stressed devotion to Vithoba/Vitthal.
• Tukaram (17th c.):
  • Work: Abhangs (devotional poetry).
  • Opposed ritualism, upheld equality and love for God.
• Eknath:
  • Works: Bhagavata Purana (Marathi), Rukmini Swayamvar.
  • Emphasized Bhakti with social service.

4. North Indian Bhakti Saints (Nirguna & Saguna Traditions)

Nirguna Bhakti – Worship of formless God

• Kabir (15th c., Varanasi):
  • Language: Nirgun poetry in Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu.
  • Work: Dohas (couplets).
  • Condemned caste, idol-worship; supported universal religion.
• Ravidas:
  • Leatherworker by caste.
  • Stressed equality of all beings and inner purity.
  • Hymns included in Guru Granth Sahib.
• Dadu Dayal (Rajasthan):
  • Founded Dadu-Panth.
  • Poetry on universal love, formless God.

Saguna Bhakti – Worship of God with form (Rama, Krishna)

• Tulsidas (16th c., UP):
  • Work: Ramcharitmanas (Awadhi version of Ramayana).
  • Worshipped Rama as supreme.
• Surdas (15th–16th c., Braj region):
  • Work: Sursagar – devotional songs for Krishna.
  • Affiliated with Pushti Marg of Vallabhacharya.
• Meerabai (16th c., Mewar/Rajasthan):
  • Devotee of Krishna, defied social norms.
  • Poetry full of love, surrender, and pain of separation.
• Vallabhacharya (philosopher):
  • Founder of Pushti Marg.
  • Preached Krishna Bhakti with grace (pushti) over penance.

5. Bhakti Saints of Eastern India

• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (Bengal/Odisha):
  • Preached Gaudiya Vaishnavism – ecstatic Krishna devotion.
  • Popularized Kirtans and dance as devotion.
• Shankardev (Assam):
  • Founded Ekasarana Dharma.
  • Wrote Borgeets, Kirtan Ghosha.

6. Bhakti in South Indian Vernaculars

• Tallapaka Annamacharya (Andhra):
  • Devotional songs (Sankirtanas) on Lord Venkateshwara.
• Purandara Dasa (Karnataka):
  • Father of Carnatic music.
  • Composed Kirtanas in Kannada.
• Kanaka Dasa:
  • Focused on equality and devotion to Krishna.

Sufi Literature

• Sufism is the mystical and devotional aspect of Islam, emphasizing love, personal union with God, renunciation of materialism, and service to humanity.
• In India, Sufi saints spread their message primarily through Persian, Arabic, Urdu, and regional languages, leaving behind a rich literary tradition.
• Their poetry, prose, hagiographies (tazkiras), letters (maktoobat) and discourses (malfuzat) form the corpus of Sufi literature.

Prominent Sufi Saints, Orders, and their Literary Contributions

• 🕌 Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (Ajmer, d. 1236)
  • Founder of Chishti order in India.
  • Though not a prolific writer, his teachings influenced later literature.
  • Sufi Message: Love for all, service to the poor, music as spiritual path.
• 🕌 Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi, d. 1325)
  • Discourses recorded in Fawaid-ul-Fuwad by Amir Hasan Sijzi.
  • Opposed orthodoxy and formalism, emphasized love, tolerance, and renunciation.
• 🖋️ Amir Khusrau (1253–1325)
  • Disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya; called the “Parrot of India (Tuti-e-Hind)”.
  • Wrote extensively in Persian and Hindavi.
  • Key Works:
    • Tuhfat-us-Sighr, Nuh Sipihr, Qiran-us-Sa’dain (Persian poetry).
    • Popularized Qawwali form.
  • Introduced Indo-Persian culture and themes of divine love.
• 🕌 Sheikh Nasiruddin Chiragh-e-Dehli
  • Successor of Nizamuddin Auliya.
  • His sayings were compiled into Khair-ul-Majalis by Hamid Qalandar.
• 🕌 Baba Farid (1173–1266) – Punjab
  • First major Sufi poet in Punjabi.
  • His verses are included in Guru Granth Sahib.
  • Stressed love, humility, detachment, and social justice.
• 🕌 Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi (Naqshbandi-Sabiri)
  • Composed Maktubat (letters) on mystical and spiritual ideas.
  • Advocated silent remembrance (Zikr) and close contact with sharia.
• 🕌 Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564–1624)
  • Naqshbandi order; reformist thinker.
  • Work: Maktubat-i-Imam Rabbani – letters emphasizing Islamic orthodoxy, reaction against Akbar’s Din-i-Ilahi.
  • Believed in Wahdat al-Shuhud (Unity of Witnessing) as opposed to Wahdat al-Wujud.
• 🕌 Shah Waliullah Dehlavi (1703–1762)
  • Philosopher, theologian, reformer.
  • Translated Quran into Persian.
  • Wrote:
    • Hujjatullah al-Baligha – on social, spiritual, and political structure of Islamic society.
    • Emphasized harmony between Sharia and Sufism.
• 🕌 Dara Shikoh (1615–1659)
  • Son of Shah Jahan; a liberal Sufi thinker.
  • Works:
    • Sirr-e-Akbar – Persian translation of Upanishads.
    • Majma-ul-Bahrain – On the unity of Hindu and Islamic mysticism.
  • Tried to synthesize Vedanta and Sufism.
• 🕌 Sarmad Kashani (17th century)
  • Mystic of Jewish origin.
  • Wrote Persian quatrains (rubaiyat).
  • Critic of orthodoxy; executed by Aurangzeb.
  • Symbol of freedom of thought in Sufism.

Urdu Literature in Late Medieval India

• 🕌 Wali Muhammad Wali (1667–1707)
  • Known as “Father of Urdu Poetry”.
  • Introduced Persian poetic styles (especially the ghazal) into Urdu.
  • Works: Diwan-e-Wali – Popularized Urdu poetry in Delhi.
  • Paved the way for Urdu as a respectable literary language.
• 🕌 Siraj-ud-Din Ali Khan Arzu (1689–1756)
  • A pioneer of classical Urdu poetry and literary criticism.
  • Promoted Persianized Urdu, helped codify grammar, and contributed to literary aesthetics.
  • Works:
    • Afsana (Prose fiction).
    • Commentaries on Persian literary texts.
  • Played a pivotal role in the shift from Persian to Urdu as the dominant literary language.
• 🕌 Mir Taqi Mir (1723–1810)
  • One of the founders of Urdu classical poetry.
  • Known for deeply emotional ghazals.
  • Works: Kulliyat-e-Mir – A comprehensive collection of his ghazals.
  • Called the “Khuda-e-Sukhan” (God of Poetry) for his eloquence and sensitivity.
• 🕌 Mirza Ghalib (1797–1869)
  • Regarded as the greatest Urdu poet of the 19th century.
  • Bridged classical and modern themes in Urdu poetry.
  • Works:
    • Diwan-e-Ghalib – Collection of ghazals on love, loss, existence, and identity.
  • Legacy: Called the “Shakespeare of India“, his philosophical depth and linguistic innovation shaped modern Urdu poetry.
• 🕌 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898)
  • Leader of the Aligarh Movement, promoter of modern education among Muslims.
  • Advocated use of simple Urdu prose for scientific and historical texts.
  • Works:
    • Asar-us-Sanadid – A history of Delhi’s architecture.
    • Tahzib-ul-Akhlaq – A reformist journal to promote rationalism and social reform.
  • Instrumental in making Urdu the language of modern intellectual discourse.
• 🕌 Muhammad Iqbal (1877–1938)
  • Poet-philosopher, national thinker.
  • Works:
    • Bang-e-Dra, Bal-e-Jibril, Asrar-e-Khudi.
  • Promoted self-hood (Khudi), pan-Islamism, and cultural identity.
  • Revered as the spiritual father of Pakistan.

Folk and Vernacular Literature

• Folk and vernacular literature refers to the oral and written expressions in regional languages that are deeply rooted in local culture, customs, and traditions.
• Unlike classical literature, which often catered to elites in Sanskrit, Persian, or Arabic, folk and vernacular traditions addressed the masses and reflected their everyday life, struggles, beliefs, and aspirations.
• Played a major role in preserving indigenous identities, especially during periods of foreign rule and social change.
• Gained momentum from the Bhakti and Sufi Movements (13th–18th century), which popularized religious literature in local languages.
  • Encouraged by regional courts, temples, and local communities.

🟨 Key Literary Works in Regional Vernaculars

📌 North India

• 📝 Awadhi (UP Region)
  • Tulsidas – Ramcharitmanas: Devotional retelling of the Ramayana in Awadhi; widely revered and popular across North India.
  • Malik Muhammad Jayasi – Padmavat: Sufi-inspired romantic epic blending folklore and mysticism.
• 📝 Braj Bhasha
  • Surdas – Sursagar: A collection of verses devoted to Krishna; major work in the Bhakti tradition.
  • Raskhan – Prem Vatika: Devotional poetry on Krishna, written by a Muslim Bhakta.
• 📝 Bhojpuri
  • Bidesia Folk Songs (by Bhikhari Thakur): Explores themes of migration, separation, and socio-economic hardship.
• 📝 Punjabi
  • Janamsakhis: Biographical narratives of Guru Nanak’s life and teachings.
  • Waris Shah – Heer Ranjha: Romantic tragedy in poetic form, symbolizing cultural identity.

📌 Eastern India

• 📝 Bengali
  • Charyapadas: Oldest known Bengali Buddhist mystical verses (8th–12th century).
  • Mangalkavyas:
    • Manasamangal, Chandimangal – Mythical poems celebrating local deities like Manasa and Chandi.
  • Lalon Fakir’s Songs: Philosophical and devotional folk songs challenging orthodoxy.
• 📝 Odia
  • Sarala Das – Odia Mahabharata: Earliest epic in the Odia language.
  • Jagannath Das – Odia Bhagavata Purana: Popular religious text promoting Bhakti.
• 📝 Maithili
  • Vidyapati – Padavali: Love and devotional poetry dedicated to Krishna and Radha.

📌 Southern India

• 📝 Kannada
  • Vachanas (Basavanna, Allama Prabhu, Akka Mahadevi): Short poetic statements promoting social reform and Shiva devotion.
  • Kumaravyasa – Karnata Bharata Kathamanjari: Adaptation of the Mahabharata in Kannada.
• 📝 Telugu
  • Vemana – Vemana Padyalu: Didactic poems on morality and social equality.
  • Palkuriki Somanatha – Basava Purana: Biography of Basavanna and the Lingayat saints.
• 📝 Tamil
  • Tevaram (Appar, Sambandar, Sundarar): Shaivite hymns part of Tamil Bhakti literature.
  • Divya Prabandham (Alwars): Vaishnavite devotional poems.
  • Villiputhurar – Villibharatam: Tamil rendition of Mahabharata.
• 📝 Malayalam
  • Ezhuthachan – Adhyatma Ramayanam: Devotional retelling of the Ramayana in Malayalam.
  • Cherusseri Namboothiri – Krishna Gatha: Devotional poem on Krishna’s childhood.

📌 Western India

• 📝 Marathi
  • Dnyaneshwar – Dnyaneshwari: Philosophical commentary on the Gita in verse.
  • Namdev, Tukaram – Abhangas: Devotional poems dedicated to Vithoba of Pandharpur.
  • Muktabai – Tattvagita: Philosophical insights from a female saint.
• 📝 Gujarati
  • Narsinh Mehta – Vaishnav Jan To: Bhakti song promoting compassion and equality.
  • Bhalan – Nalakhyan: Folk epic based on the love story of Nala and Damayanti.
• 📝 Rajasthani
  • Pabuji ki Phad: Folk epic about the Rajput hero Pabuji, performed with scroll paintings.
  • Devnarayan ki Phad: Oral tradition depicting the life of folk deities.

📌 Tribal & Oral Literature (Across India)

• Santhali Songs – Oral poems and creation myths in the Santhal community.
• Bhils’ Ballads – Heroic narratives of local warriors and gods.
• Gond Folk Tales – Stories of forest spirits, deities, and ancestral legends.

Modern Indian Literature

• Modern Indian Literature marks the transition from classical and medieval forms to new literary styles, themes, and mediums, influenced by colonialism, nationalism, social reform, and modern education.
• Characterized by the adoption of print technology, rise of vernacular languages, and the emergence of socially conscious and nationalist writings.

Hindi Literature

• Bharatendu Harishchandra (1850–1885)
  • Known as the father of modern Hindi literature.
  • Works: Andher Nagari, Bharat Durdasha
  • Themes: Social satire, colonial critique, nationalism.
• Munshi Premchand (1880–1936)
  • Pioneer of Hindi-Urdu realism.
  • Novels: Godaan, Gaban, Nirmala, Sevasadan
  • Themes: Rural exploitation, caste, women’s issues, feudalism.
• Jaishankar Prasad
  • Pillar of Chhayavaad (Hindi Romanticism).
  • Works: Kamayani (epic poetry), Skandagupta (drama)
  • Themes: Philosophy, nationalism, mysticism.
• Mahadevi Verma
  • Leading female voice in Chhayavaad.
  • Works: Yama (poetry), Shrinkhla ki Kadiyan (essays)
  • Themes: Feminism, emotional introspection.
• Ramdhari Singh Dinkar
  • Works: Rashmirathi, Parashuram ki Prateeksha
  • Themes: Patriotism, valor, Krishna symbolism.

Bengali Literature

• Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay (1838–1894)
  • First Indian to write novels in a modern sense.
  • Works: Anandamath, Durgeshnandini
  • Legacy: Vande Mataram became a nationalist anthem.
• Dinabandhu Mitra (1829–1873)
  • A pioneer of realist social drama in Bengali literature.
  • Work: Neeldarpan (1860)
    • Theme: Dramatized the Indigo Revolt; exposed European exploitation of Indian peasants.
    • Translated into English by Michael Madhusudan Dutt, reaching British Parliament.
    • Marked the beginning of protest literature in Indian theatre.
  • Legacy: Inspired future writers to use literature as a tool for national awakening and resistance.
• Rabindranath Tagore (1861–1941)
  • Nobel Laureate in Literature (1913).
  • Works: Gitanjali (poetry), Gora, Ghare Baire (novels), Dak Ghar (play)
  • Themes: Universal humanism, nationalism, spirituality.
• Michael Madhusudan Dutt
  • Introduced blank verse and epic drama in Bengali.
  • Work: Meghnad Badh Kavya (Ramayana reimagined).
• Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay
  • Novelist of the social and emotional middle class.
  • Works: Devdas, Parineeta, Shrikant
  • Themes: Women’s issues, love, social customs.

Urdu Literature

• Mirza Ghalib (1797–1869)
  • Transition figure from classical to modern Urdu poetry.
  • Work: Diwan-e-Ghalib
  • Themes: Love, existentialism, identity.
• Siraj-ud-Din Ali Khan Arzu (1689–1756)
  • Promoted Persianized Urdu, commentary on Persian texts.
  • Key in defining early Urdu literary standards.
• Faiz Ahmed Faiz (1911–1984)
  • Progressive poet blending romance and revolution.
  • Works: Subh-e-Azadi, Mujh Se Pehli Si Mohabbat
  • Themes: Socialism, anti-colonialism, humanism.
• Kaifi Azmi
  • Known for Nazms and progressive ideology.
  • Work: Aurat (on women’s rights)
  • Associated with the Progressive Writers’ Movement.
• Meeraji and Jamiluddin Aali
  • Modernists who expanded Urdu literary boundaries into psychology, sexuality, and modernism.

Tamil Literature

• Subramania Bharati (1882–1921)
  • Nationalist and social reformer.
  • Works: Kuyil Pattu, Panchali Sabatham
  • Themes: Feminism, caste abolition, patriotism.
• Jayakanthan
  • Modern novelist.
  • Works: Sila Nerangalil Sila Manithargal
  • Themes: Realism, middle-class struggles.

Marathi Literature

• Jyotiba Phule
  • Wrote prose literature advocating social reform.
  • Work: Gulamgiri
  • Themes: Anti-casteism, women’s education.
• Tukaram (early modern)
  • Abhangs on Vithoba (precursor to modern realism).
  • Focus: Bhakti, social consciousness.
• Vishnu Sakharam Khandekar
  • First Marathi writer to win the Jnanpith Award.
  • Work: Yayati
• P. L. Deshpande (Pu La)
  • Satirical and humorous writings in the mid-20th century.

Malayalam Literature

• Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan
  • Father of modern Malayalam literature.
  • Work: Adhyatma Ramayanam
• Vaikom Muhammad Basheer
  • Realist short story writer.
  • Work: Balyakalasakhi, Mathilukal
  • Themes: Poverty, humor, love, Gandhian ideals.

Kannada Literature

• Kuvempu (K. V. Puttappa)
  • First Kannada Jnanpith awardee.
  • Works: Sri Ramayana Darshanam
  • Themes: Universalism, Kannada identity.
• U. R. Ananthamurthy
  • Modernist writer.
  • Work: Samskara – on caste and tradition.

Telugu Literature

• Gurajada Apparao
  • Pioneer of modern Telugu literature.
  • Play: Kanyasulkam – social satire against child marriage.
• Sri Sri (Srirangam Srinivasa Rao)
  • Marxist and revolutionary poet.
  • Work: Mahaprasthanam

Gujarati Literature

• Narmad (Narmadashankar Dave)
  • Early modern Gujarati poet.
  • Work: Mari Hakikat (autobiography), patriotic songs.
• Umashankar Joshi
  • Jnanpith awardee, nationalist poet.
  • Works: Nishith, Bahubali
• Pannalal Patel
  • Work: Manvi Ni Bhavai – rural life, famine.