French Revolution: The Consulate (1799–1804)
The Consulate marked Napoleon’s transformation from victorious general to master statesman — a period in which he consolidated power under a nominally republican constitution, secured peace abroad, and reconstructed France’s shattered institutions, before finally declaring himself Emperor in 1804. This article traces the Consular Constitution, Napoleon’s foreign policy, his sweeping domestic reforms, and the reasons France accepted his monarchical rule — a key theme in the UPSC History Optional syllabus on the French Revolution and Napoleon.
The Consulate (1799–1804)
- The overthrow of the Directory by Napoleon necessitated a revision of the constitution. Its forms and details, drawn up by Sieyès and amended by Napoleon, gave France a Consular Constitution.
Main Features of the Consular Constitution
- Executive power was vested in three consuls, elected by the Senate for ten years.
- One of them, the First Consul, held the power of making war and peace, and appointing ministers, ambassadors, and all other civil and military officers. The other two consuls had only a consultative voice.
- Legislative functions were distributed among three separate bodies:
- The Council of State — drafted all laws and bills.
- The Tribunate — discussed laws and bills, without voting.
- The Legislative Body — voted upon laws and bills, without discussing them.
- A fourth body, the Senate, stood higher than the others — composed of sixty members, whose function was to reject or ratify measures referred to it by the Legislative Body.
- It was also an electing body, choosing the consuls and the members of both the Tribunate and the Legislative Body — though members of the Council of State were to be nominated by the First Consul himself.
A Constitution That Was “a Mere Sham”
- The constitution drawn up by the Consulate was, in substance, a mere sham: appearances of popular government were maintained to deceive the people, while all power was practically concentrated in the hands of the First Consul.
- The legislative functions were so divided as to leave no real influence to either the Tribunate or the Legislative Body.
- The Senate and the Council of State, being nominated by the First Consul, were really tools in his hands.
- France was a republic in name, but in fact the government had become a veiled monarchy.
- Under this new constitution, Napoleon was chosen First Consul, taking a long step toward making himself Emperor.
Foreign Policy of the Consulate
Napoleon’s Second Italian Campaign
- The Consulate’s first task was to meet the Second Coalition formed against France, and recover ground lost during Napoleon’s absence in Egypt.
- Russia withdrew from the coalition, leaving Austria and England as the remaining enemies.
- Napoleon completely defeated the Austrians, recovering all of Italy at a stroke (1800). By the Peace of Lunéville (1801), Austria reaffirmed all cessions previously made to France.
- After Austria’s defeat, England alone held out against France.
- Unable to strike England at sea, Napoleon turned to diplomacy, exploiting the grievances of neutral powers against England — whose ships routinely searched even neutral vessels for French goods.
- Napoleon instigated the Czar to revive, against England, the Armed Neutrality — consisting of Russia, Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark — aimed at preventing England from searching neutral ships for French goods.
- As soon as this league formed, the English fleet bombarded Copenhagen and captured the Danish fleet, to prevent it falling into Napoleon’s hands.
- This victory, together with the assassination of the Czar of Russia, broke up the Armed Neutrality — Napoleon’s plan was foiled, and England saved from a formidable coalition.
- The English were also successful in Egypt, compelling the French to evacuate.
The Peace of Amiens (1802)
- All these French reverses inclined Napoleon toward peace with England, and England — tired of war — was ready to listen.
- By the Peace of Amiens (1802), England restored all conquests from France and her allies, except Ceylon and Trinidad, and promised to evacuate Malta.
- France agreed to evacuate Naples and the Papal States, and to restore Egypt to the Sultan of Turkey.
- This peace was favourable to France, since England tacitly recognised French predominance on the Continent — a great triumph for Napoleon.
- England agreed to recognise his European annexations and abandon intervention in continental affairs, without securing either compensation in colonial gains or an effective guarantee of future non-aggression from France — giving Napoleon a free hand to impose his own policy on Europe.
- England had gone to war in 1793 to exclude France from Belgium, but by 1802 had to make peace by accepting her own exclusion from it.
- This peace, however, was too favourable to France to last long.
- England surrendered most of her overseas conquests, despite having suffered no serious reverse, while France retained all her European conquests — the Peace of Amiens thus did not conform to the real balance of power in Europe.
Reforms of Napoleon under the Consulate (1799–1804)
Objectives of His Reforms
- During the short interval of peace following the treaties of Lunéville and Amiens, Napoleon devoted himself to reorganising the government of France and rebuilding the fabric of social order.
- His aims were to heal the nation’s wounds, secure administrative efficiency, and ensure a large measure of social and fiscal “Equality” — though he remained opposed to the principle of “Liberty.”
- He recognised how, in the name of liberty, the country had been plunged into chaos, and so established a strong centralised government to restore peace and order — a policy clearly reflected in his reorganisation of local government.
Economic Reforms
- Financial administration and taxation — the “cancers of the old regime” — were among the first areas overhauled.
- The Bank of France was founded in 1800, its constitution drafted by the leading Paris banker Perregaux. Though initially an independent corporation, it was given the monopoly of issuing bank-notes in 1803. As the historian Hayes wrote of it: “It is one of the soundest financial institutions in the world.”
- Tax collection was made efficient: the system of collecting taxes, which the Revolution had entrusted to autonomous local authorities, was now centralised and made more efficient by Gaudin.
- Abolition of the guild system: Napoleon abolished the guild system and prohibited merchants from forming new guilds, considering them centres of corruption and indiscipline.
- Dispute settlement between merchants and labourers: an Industrial Committee was formed, though merchants held the majority within it.
- Napoleon imported machines from Britain and America for the rapid industrialisation of France, and more than 299 roads were constructed to improve internal connectivity — encouraging trade and industry generally.
Educational Reforms
- Napoleon’s reorganisation of the education system was a considerable success, drastically improving the level of learning. The following schools flourished under the Consulate:
- Primary Schools: under public control, managed by the communes through prefects and sub-prefects, with no direct state control.
- Grammar Schools (Secondary Schools): under the supervision of the central government, teaching Latin, Greek, and French.
- High Schools: meant for higher education, established in major towns, with courses decided by the government and teachers appointed by it.
- Vocational Schools: established for vocational training, alongside military schools (“Lycées“) providing military training, and a Normal School for training teachers.
- Teacher training: the École Normale Supérieure (established 1794) was set up with the sole purpose of training teachers.
- Teachers were rewarded for identifying and promoting students with special talents, since Napoleon felt it more important to focus on them, equipping France with intelligent and qualified future leaders.
Socio-Cultural Reforms
- Napoleon proclaimed social equality for all Frenchmen — securing what was perhaps the most important gain of the French Revolution.
Policy of Conciliation
- Napoleon sought to enlist the sympathy of every section of the community by doing away with party distinctions.
- The émigrés and non-juring clergy were treated sympathetically, and offices were thrown open to all — including royalists and Girondists — provided they acquiesced in the existing system.
Reconciliation with the Church (The Concordat)
- Napoleon recognised that the Civil Constitution of the Clergy had alienated a considerable section of the people, and sought to win their gratitude by restoring the Roman Catholic Church.
- He reached an agreement with the Pope in 1801, known as the Concordat, by which Catholicism was recognised as “the religion of the great majority of the French people,” and the right of public worship granted to the Catholic Church.
- The Pope, in turn, accepted the right to religious freedom for all citizens and the secularisation of public life, and concurred in the confiscation of Church property — the state, in return, assuming the maintenance of the clergy.
- Bishops were to be nominated by the state, but invested by the Pope, and were required to take an oath of fidelity to the government.
- Thus, the Catholic Church was re-established, though not in its pre-revolutionary power — it was now made dependent on the state.
- This measure healed the schism within the Church, giving great satisfaction to the mass of the population, who became readily reconciled to Napoleon’s ascendancy.
- Napoleon thus made a political use of religion — though re-establishing Catholicism, he allowed complete religious toleration to all sects.
- Napoleon also created a new aristocracy of merit by instituting the Legion of Honour, satisfying the French love of glory and creating a new aristocracy faithful to him.
Politico-Administrative Reforms
- Napoleon created a “Modern State” in France, based on the principles of equality, rule of law, and secularism — the principle of merit was adopted for appointments under the state.
- Napoleon promoted Fraternity to heal France’s wounds — émigrés were allowed to return without fear of persecution.
- A Central Secretariat was created to manage the affairs of state, and a new civil service known as the Auditeur was created to run the administration.
Centralisation of Local Government
- Napoleon reduced the elected councils to impotence, placing the “Departments” and smaller administrative units — such as arrondissements and communes — in the hands of prefects, sub-prefects, and mayors, all appointed either directly or indirectly by himself.
- This system restored order, but ignored the ideas of self-government.
The Napoleonic Code of 1804
- Napoleon’s greatest achievement in internal reconstruction was the Civil Code, known as the Code Napoléon. As he himself said: “My true glory is not to have won 40 battles… Waterloo will erase the memory of so many victories… but… what will live forever, is my Civil Code.”
- Pre-revolutionary France had been governed by a perplexing variety of often-contradictory laws — the philosopher Voltaire observed that a man travelling across France changed laws as often as he changed horses.
- Napoleon saw this as a major problem, and became determined to unify France under a single, clearly written set of laws in a logical format — resulting in the Code Napoléon of 1804.
- The enormously complex task of codifying French law was completed: the synthesis, eventually embodied in the 2,287 articles of the Napoleonic Code, was made possible by Bonaparte’s readiness to employ talented men, whatever their past.
- The Code gave post-revolutionary France its first coherent set of laws concerning property, colonial affairs, the family, and individual rights.
- It included rights such as freedom of speech, public trials, freedom of worship, and freedom to select one’s own occupation.
- It also forbade privileges based on birth, and specified that government jobs go only to the most qualified.
- It established social equality in the eyes of the law, secured religious toleration for all, and perpetuated much of the social gains won by the Revolution.
- Yet the Code also contained elements of Roman law, as it drew on ancient France’s respect for family discipline and the private ownership of property, as envisaged in Roman law.
- On the Council of State, former revolutionaries like Théophile Berlier and Antoine Thibaudeau upheld the claims of customary law, while former royalist jurists like Jean Portalis upheld the claims of Roman law.
- Napoleon’s famous Code gave France a common system of law — clear, orderly, and systematic — making justice more rapid, cheap, and reliable.
- The Code’s influence can be seen in the fact that most territories he occupied adopted it, even after his defeat at Waterloo.
- The Code, in a way, accelerated the ending of feudalism in Western and Central Europe, and laid the foundation for the modern nation-state.
- The Napoleonic Code has influenced the legal systems of more than 70 nations worldwide, and was adopted throughout much of Europe, remaining in force after Napoleon’s defeat.
- It has served as the model for more than twenty civil code countries (as opposed to common law countries), such as Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, and Latin America, among others.
- Today, the Napoleonic Code continues to influence the lives of ordinary people in nearly all parts of the world. Napoleon was right — his lasting legacy was not any particular military victory, but his vision of a clear and logical single set of laws, fairly applied to everyone.
Miscellaneous
- Beyond these institutional reforms, the Consulate achieved much that was more silent and constructive: Bonaparte disciplined France and established order.
- Brigandage was stopped, and life and property made secure. The Consulate began a healing process in French life, building a framework of public order and efficient government within which the energies and genius of the French people could again labour fruitfully.
“The Transference of the Methods of Bonaparte the General to the Task of Bonaparte the Statesman”
- This is a statement by the historian David Thomson, in his book Europe Since Napoleon. Thomson observes that between 1800 and 1803, Napoleon, as First Consul, devoted his energies mainly to France’s internal reorganisation.
- Swift decision and action: Napoleon brought to reorganisation the same qualities of swift decision and action, precision, and concentration on essentials that had already brought him success in war — providing the concentrated drive that got things done.
- Enlisting the ablest men in service: as in war, he enlisted a band of men imbued with the same spirit and devoted to the same ends, regardless of their past loyalties — ranging from former royal servants like the financial bureaucrat Martin Gaudin, to former regicide members of the Committee of Public Safety like the administrator Jean-Bon Saint-André. He was the architect; they, the technicians.
- Napoleon’s overall purpose was a systematic reconstruction of France’s main legal, financial, and administrative institutions — giving him a strong claim to be the last, and greatest, of the eighteenth-century benevolent despots.
- If Napoleon the General’s conquests were ephemeral, the civilian work of Napoleon the Statesman was “built on granite.” These reforms left a lasting mark on the institutions of France and much of Western Europe, earning him the title “Architect of Modern Europe.”
Significance of the Consulate
- The work of the Consulate was an honest and successful attempt to secure to the French people the fruits of the Revolution, by reducing the ideas of 1789 to a system of law.
- The Civil Code abolished all traces of aristocratic privilege and established equality before the law.
- By the Concordat, the Pope recognised the new land system of France, resting on the revolutionary sale of Church property — thus securing the peasant in possession of what he had gained through the Revolution.
- The Concordat also healed the ecclesiastical discord that had been a source of the Revolution’s weakness.
- Hence, feudalism, privilege, and all the social anomalies against which the French people had once struggled violently were removed — the Consulate confirmed the revolutionary changes effected in France’s social and economic life.
- But in politics, the Consulate showed a reaction toward the centralised despotism of the Bourbons.
An Estimate of Napoleon’s Statesmanship
Napoleon Restored Peace and Order by Healing the Wounds of the Revolution
- Napoleon’s domestic measures amounted to a wholesale reconstruction of France, constituting his best claim to statesmanship, and bearing eloquent testimony to an administrative genius nearly as high as his military ability.
- Religion, government, legal justice, and education all fell within his comprehensive scheme of reform. Raised above the strife of factions, he could see the country’s needs as a whole, bringing rare insight and detachment to reconstruction and pacification.
- In all he did, his primary object was to restore order, confidence, and respect for authority.
- His financial measures, together with the establishment of the Bank of France, did much to restore financial confidence.
- Social confidence was restored by repealing the decrees against émigrés, and other tyrannical Jacobin laws.
- Ecclesiastical tranquility was restored by the famous Concordat, which healed the schism in the Church.
- Thus, he purged the Revolution of its excesses and conciliated sections of the people, so they became reconciled to the new order. His monumental Civil Code established civil equality and religious toleration.
- He threw careers open to talent, removing all trace of aristocratic privilege, and reorganised the entire system of education, encouraging higher study and research, especially in physical science.
- Hence, he consolidated the Revolution by securing its more valued fruits for the people — proving himself one of the greatest social reformers. As has been aptly remarked: “If the conquests of Napoleon were ephemeral, his civilian work in France was built upon granite.”
How Far Napoleon Was True to the Revolution
- In reorganising France’s institutions, “Napoleon showed himself at once the heir of the Revolution and the product of the reaction against it.”
- Of the Revolution’s cardinal principles, he was undisguisedly opposed to “liberty,” but adopted the principle of “equality” in social and fiscal matters. Thus, his remark, “I am the Revolution,” is only partially true.
- His reforms accorded with the Revolution’s principles insofar as equality was concerned — his famous Civil Code enshrined this idea.
- He showed no partiality or favourites: all shared the nation’s burden in proportion to their ability, and all had an equal chance of holding public office.
- By throwing careers open to talent, he secured equal opportunity for all, ignoring any privileged class — so the social basis of France remained revolutionary.
- But Napoleon did not respect political liberty, the Revolution’s grand idea, regarding it as a disturbing factor that prevented state efficiency.
- He allowed neither liberty of speech nor of the press.
- He deprived the “Departments” of all powers of self-government, reverting to the old system of “intendants” through a law imposing a prefect and sub-prefect on every department — officers appointed by the central executive power at Paris, that is, virtually by Napoleon himself. Thus, the principle of election was subordinated to that of selection.
- By centralising and streamlining administration, he did much to organise along the lines of the ancient regime — in this respect, he may be seen as the “destroyer” of the Revolution.
- The vigorous impulse given to useful public works, the attempted restoration of the colonial empire lost by Louis XV, the centralisation of rule, and the restriction of political liberty — all marked a return to the methods of Louis XIV and Colbert.
- Similarly, though the Revolution had accepted the principle of nationality, Napoleon showed himself strongly anti-national in his dealings with foreign countries, especially Germany and Spain.
Napoleon Proclaimed as Emperor
- Napoleon once said: “I found the crown of France lying on the ground and I picked it up with my sword.”
- This statement reflects the ease with which he captured power in France, aided by favourable circumstances as much as by his own individual talent — he owed his triumph rather to chance than to any clear plan.
- The French people had been subjected to so many experiments that the ultimate goal of the Revolution had grown dim. Public opinion was tired of political agitation, endless elections, and disorder that had throttled the nation’s economic life — they wanted a stable government that would give order and security.
- Napoleon had already proved himself an able general, and France turned to Bonaparte. It was hope that made the Revolution, and despair that led it to the feet of Napoleon.
- Napoleon was the most acceptable man available.
- He combined a soldier’s love of order and authority with a revolutionary’s hatred of the ancien régime.
- It was believed Napoleon, as ruler, would protect the valued fruits of revolutionary reform in land, taxation, and justice — his power and strength a guarantee that émigrés and the nobility would never recover their lands and privileges.
- Moderates, in turn, found in him a safeguard against radicalism, since he was averse to the extremities — like the Jacobins’ Reign of Terror — that had made moderates despair of the Revolution.
- The rotten state of the Directory provided Napoleon’s opportunity.
- Faulted on many counts, the Constitution of 1795 lacked effectiveness; neither common people nor aristocracy had their power recognised under the Directory, which was characterised by political uncertainty due to constitutional weaknesses and the incompetence and inefficiency of the Directors.
- According to David Thomson, the Directors “presided over the final liquidation of the Revolution.” The Directory was preceded by a steep rise in commodity prices, which the Directors could neither contain nor use to restore internal order — leading to growing popular discontent, with the Directors’ continued existence owed mainly to the army.
- Napoleon could never have risen so smoothly to power had the Directory not been in such a rotten condition — its corruption, jobbery, plotting, and useless theorising had tired the nation.
- France had already been at war with Sardinia, Austria, and England when the Directory came to power.
- Napoleon Bonaparte, then commander-in-chief of the French army, fought Austria and Sardinia, coming out victorious through spectacular military tactics — spreading French influence from 1796 onward and defeating the Austrian army. Despite his abortive expedition to Egypt, the people gave him a hero’s welcome.
- The Directory’s rule failed to deal adequately with internal problems, though its foreign-policy success was due to Napoleon’s military genius. This failure to manage internal disorder, and the misrule of the Directory, encouraged the people to seek a saviour in Napoleon.
- Taking full advantage of his new standing, Bonaparte, with the help of Abbé Sieyès, forcibly engineered the fall of the Directory, formed the Consulate, and captured power in France in 1799.
- Under the Consulate, power was vested in three consuls, but Napoleon, as First Consul, was all-powerful. He was appointed Consul for Life following a national plebiscite, and in 1804, declared himself Emperor of France.
Steps by Which Napoleon Made Himself Emperor
- Ever since his brilliant successes in the Italian campaigns, Napoleon had fashioned his conduct to make himself the most powerful man in the state. The key steps were:
- His appointment as First Consul placed supreme executive power in his hands.
- The reforms he introduced strengthened his position further, enabling him to conciliate hostile elements — a considerable portion of the people became reconciled to his paramount position.
- The Legion of Honour he instituted formed the basis of a new aristocracy dependent on him — a distinct advance toward imperialism.
- In 1802, he had himself elected consul for life, making him the absolute ruler of France, and bringing him within view of the throne.
- Lastly, taking advantage of a royalist plot against his life hatched by some generals, he retaliated by executing a representative of the Bourbons. The conspiracies against his life served to emphasise his pre-eminence, and Napoleon dropped the last pretence of republicanism, proclaiming himself Emperor of the French in May 1804 — a change of constitution ratified by a popular plebiscite.
Reasons Why France Submitted to the Monarchical Rule of Napoleon
- It appears paradoxical that France, having destroyed the Bourbon monarchy, should revert to hereditary absolutism and surrender her political liberty at Napoleon’s feet — but the paradox is easily explained.
- The French people were tired of the vicissitudes of fortune through which they had recently passed, sick of the “whirligig” of political experiments that had given them neither peace nor security. After ten years of war and revolution, they desired nothing so much as peace and stable government.
- They clearly saw that only a soldier’s sword could cut France free from factional entanglements and establish an era of ordered progress — hence they turned, with relief, to Napoleon, whom they thought the only man capable of restoring discipline and respect for authority.
- Besides, Napoleon was himself a product of the Revolution, so his power was a guarantee that aristocratic privileges would not be restored, and that the people would remain in secure possession of the lands they had acquired through revolutionary arrangements.
- As a matter of fact, Napoleon did protect the more valued fruits of the Revolution, thereby reconciling the French people to his rule.
- It should be noted that the French Revolution was motivated more by social wrongs and economic injustice than by political grievances — hence, when Napoleon ensured equality in the sense of equal opportunity, the French people did not grudge the loss of their liberty.
- Finally, one must also account for Napoleon’s magnetic personality and his astounding victories — the French people loved nothing more than Glory, and they had their fill of it under Napoleon’s rule.
Practice Question
How did Napoleon fuse the France of the ancien régime with the France of the post-revolutionary era?
Napoleonic rule saw comprehensive reforms spanning religion, governance, legal justice, and education. These reforms preserved several ideas of post-revolutionary France, while also retaining elements of the ancien régime — the pre-revolutionary order. Napoleon showed himself, at once, the heir of the Revolution and the product of the reaction against it.
Principles of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity
- Of the French Revolution’s three basic ideas — “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity” — Napoleon adopted Equality and Fraternity, but rejected Liberty.
- His reforms accorded with the Revolution’s principles insofar as equality was concerned — he adopted the principle of equality in social and fiscal matters. His famous Civil Code enshrined this idea: he showed no partiality or favourites, with all sharing the nation’s burden in proportion to their ability, and all having an equal chance of holding public office.
- By throwing “careers open to talent,” he secured equal opportunity for all, ignoring any privileged class — so the social and fiscal basis of France remained revolutionary.
- Napoleon did not respect political liberty, the Revolution’s grand idea, regarding it as a disturbing factor preventing state efficiency. He accordingly reverted to several systems of the ancien régime, for example:
- Like King Louis — and unlike the Revolution — he allowed neither liberty of speech nor liberty of the press.
- He deprived the “Departments” of all powers of self-government, reverting to the old system of “intendants” through a law imposing a prefect and sub-prefect on every department — officers appointed virtually by Napoleon himself, subordinating the principle of election to that of selection.
- Though the prison and courts system was “officially” different — one could no longer be imprisoned without charge, and everyone was formally equal before the courts, with nobles no longer holding special legal rights — there were several shortfalls: Napoleon maintained a secret police force, which, from 1810, could arrest people without trial.
Governance
- Before the Revolution, in 1789, King Louis held absolute power and could not be removed. There was no functional National Assembly (or Parliament), and no elections — the people had no say in who held power in France.
- The Revolution brought change: there was no single ruler of France, and a National Assembly, elected by voters (all men), made all the laws — resulting in many new laws being introduced.
- Under Napoleon, further changes were introduced: Napoleon became Emperor of France, and could not be removed from power.
- There were two National Assemblies, with members chosen by Napoleon from candidates elected by the people; all men could vote, but after 1804, there were no elections at all.
- The administrative decisions made under the Constitution of 1791 were retained, but the power that same constitution had vested in local elective bodies was now abolished.
- These powers were instead vested in local officers — prefects, sub-prefects, and mayors — appointed directly by Napoleon. The principle of election was replaced by that of appointment or selection.
The Catholic Church
- During the Revolution, land owned by the Catholic Church was sold off, and freedom of religion was permitted (whereas only Catholicism had been practised under the Ancien Régime).
- In 1802, Napoleon reached an agreement with the Pope — the Concordat — in which the Pope agreed the Church would not recover its lost land, and in return, Catholicism was accepted as the religion of the majority.
- It was also agreed that bishops would be chosen by Napoleon and approved by the Pope — giving the government far greater control over the Church.
- As Napoleon put it: “The People must have religion, and religion must be in the hands of the government.”
Principle of Nationality
- The Revolution had accepted the principle of nationality, but Napoleon showed himself anti-national on several occasions in his dealings with foreign countries — especially Germany and Spain — where he expanded his own family’s rule. At the same time, he sought to maintain the glory of France itself.
Changes to Education
- Under the ancien régime (the pre-revolutionary era), only the privileged attended schools, which were run by the Church — pupils were taught respect for elders and religion.
- The Revolution brought change: revolutionaries proclaimed that schooling was for everyone, and state schools were even proposed, aiming to encourage pupils to investigate and question.
- Under Napoleon, the education system fused elements of both pre- and post-revolutionary France.
- Four grades of school were set up: primary, secondary, lycées (schools run along military lines), and technical schools.
- Schools now stressed obedience and military values — though primary education remained much as it had been before 1789.
- Science and mathematics became more important subjects in secondary schools.
- Several other elements of the education system reflected the ancien régime:
- Loyalty to the needs of the state, and respect for the Catholic Church, were included in the curriculum.
- Napoleon regressively considered public education unsuited to women, believing marriage to be their whole vocation — he did not regard women as equal to men.
Changes in the Justice System
- Napoleon brought out the Code Napoléon in 1804, containing civil, criminal, and commercial codes — a synthesis between the liberal customary and natural laws propounded during the Revolution, and the Roman law of ancient France.
- On one hand, it preserved the valued fruits of the Revolution — social equality, tolerance, equality in inheritance, individual liberty; on the other, it respected the old tradition of family discipline and private ownership of property, as envisaged in Roman law.
- The system of judicial election, introduced in 1791, was abolished, and judges were now appointed by Napoleon.
Modernisation of France
- The vigorous impulse given to useful and splendid public works, and the attempt to restore the colonial empire lost by Louis XV, all marked a return to the methods of Louis XIV and Colbert under the ancien régime.
- At the same time, Napoleon established modern institutions like the Bank of France and the Stock Exchange of France, showing the path toward a post-revolutionary, modern France.
