Bhagatrav

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Location: Bharuch district, Gujarat.
Cultural Phase: Site of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).
Significance:
- Functioned as an important port or trading outpost during the Harappan period.
- Strategically located near the estuary of Narmada River, enabling maritime and inland trade.
Archaeological Evidences:
- Presence of typical Harappan pottery, beads, and other artefacts.
- Discovery of terracotta figurines, bangles, and seals suggesting interaction with core Harappan centres.
Environmental Factor:
- Evidence of flood deposits suggests that flooding led to the decline or abandonment of the settlement.
Cultural Context:
- Likely acted as a satellite or feeder port for larger Harappan urban centres like Lothal or Dholavira.

Bhrigukachha / Bharukachchha (Bharuch)

Location: Bharuch district, Gujarat; situated at the mouth of the Narmada River, flowing into the Gulf of Khambhat.
Historical Importance:
- One of the earliest and most prominent sea ports of ancient India, active since the 6th century BCE.
- Known to Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Arabs as Barygaza.
- Played a vital role in land-sea trade routes, using monsoon winds for navigation.
Economic Role:
- Served as a major shipbuilding centre in ancient India.
- Functioned as a terminus for goods coming from the Far East, facilitating transshipment to western markets.
- Arab traders used this port to enter Gujarat.
- The British and Dutch established their commercial outposts here during the colonial period.
Trade and Commerce:
- Exports:
  - Cotton textiles, spices, ivory, gemstones.
- Imports:
  - Roman silverware, Mediterranean wines, glassware, perfumes.
- The port was integrated into the global maritime trade network, linking India to:
  - Mediterranean, West Asia, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
Cultural and Political Continuity:
- Controlled by successive rulers including:
  - Indo-Scythian Kshatrapas, Guptas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, Mughals, and later the British.
- Despite political shifts, its identity remained closely tied to ancient port culture and international trade.

Muziris

Location: Pattanam–Kodungallur area in Ernakulam and Thrissur districts, Kerala; on the Periyar River, near the Arabian Sea coast.
Historical Identity:
- Ancient port of the Chera Kingdom during the Sangam Age.
- Referred to in ancient texts as Muciripattanam or Poduke.
- Mentioned in Sangam literature, Greek and Roman sources like Pliny the Elder and Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
- Described by Pliny as the first emporium of India and featured on Roman maps.
Trade Significance:
- A key centre of Indo-Roman trade (1st century BCE – 5th century CE).
- Exports: Black pepper, spices, ivory, muslin, semi-precious stones, pearls, sapphires, diamonds, tortoise shells.
- Imports: Roman gold coins, figured linens, copper, tin, lead, coral, raw glass, wine, and other luxury goods.
- Acted as a trade hub between South India and Rome, Greece, Arabia, and West Asia.
Archaeological Discoveries at Pattanam:
- Roman amphorae, West Asian and Sassanian pottery, glass beads, metal coins.
- Structural remains like wharf, warehouse areas, and a wooden boat, indicating vibrant port activity.
- Signifies a thriving maritime community with overseas connections.
Cultural and Religious Diversity:
- Long settlement continuity from Megalithic to Medieval periods.
- Presence of temples, mosques, and Jewish synagogues in nearby Kodungallur, highlighting religious plurality.
Decline:
- Muziris port declined after the 1341 CE flood, which changed the course of the Periyar River and caused siltation, rendering the harbour defunct.
Modern Recognition:
- The Muziris Heritage Project launched by the Kerala government aims to preserve and promote the ancient legacy of Muziris through archaeological conservation and cultural tourism.

Puhar/ Pumpuhar/ Kaveripattinam (Lost Port)

Location:
- In Nagapattinam district, Tamil Nadu.
- Situated near the estuary of the Kaveri River, on the Bay of Bengal coast.
Historical Identity:
- Known as Puhar in Sangam literature.
- Served as the capital of early Chola kings during the Sangam Age.
- Referred to in classical texts like Pattinappalai, Silappadikaram, and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
Trade and Maritime Importance:
- Functioned as a major sea port and international trade hub during the Sangam period.
- Connected Tamilakam with Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and the Roman Empire.
- Exports: Spices, pearls, precious stones, fine textiles.
- Imports: Gold, horses, wine, Roman amphorae.
Archaeological Findings:
- Remains of brick wharves, ring wells, warehouses, and urban roads.
- Fragments of Roman amphorae indicate Indo-Roman trade.
- Drainage systems, residential quarters, and ancient pottery highlight advanced urban planning.
- Medieval Chola coins show continuity of port activity into later periods.
Cultural and Literary Significance:
- Celebrated in Tamil epics and Sangam texts as a cosmopolitan port city.
- Known for blending urban sophistication with maritime trade excellence.
- Contributed to the spread of Tamil culture across the Indian Ocean.
Decline:
- Believed to have been submerged by the sea, possibly due to tsunami or coastal erosion.
- Submergence likely occurred during the early medieval period, marking the end of its prominence.

Arikamedu/ Poduka

Location:
- Near Puducherry, about 4 km south of the present city, on the Bay of Bengal coast.
Historical Identity:
- Known as Poduka in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
- Functioned as a Sangam Age port under the Early Cholas.
- Active from 2nd century BCE to 7th century CE.
Role in Indo-Roman Trade:
- A major Indo-Roman maritime trade centre.
- Exported beads, textiles, semi-precious stones.
- Imported goods included Roman wine, luxury items, and ceramics.
- Roman artifacts found:
  - Amphorae bearing potters’ marks.
  - Arretine ware, Rouletted ware.
  - Roman lamps, glassware, and gems.
  - Roman gold coins, evidencing that India received gold in return for its exports.
Craft and Industrial Activities:
- Major centre for bead-making, glass production, and textile dyeing.
- Indo-Pacific beads and semi-precious stone beads indicate high-volume export-based industry.
- Archaeological evidence of workshops and kilns.
Cultural and Archaeological Significance:
- Continuous habitation across Megalithic, Sangam, and early medieval periods.
- Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions and structural remains show an urban and literate society.
- Excavated by Mortimer Wheeler and subsequent archaeologists.

Tamralipti

Location:
- Situated in Tamluk, near the confluence of the Rupnarayan and Hooghly rivers in Purba Medinipur district, West Bengal.
- Close to the Bay of Bengal, at the eastern end of the Gangetic trade route.
Historical Significance:
- Functioned as the principal eastern seaport of ancient India.
- Flourished from the Mauryan period to the Gupta era.
- Mentioned in:
  - Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
  - Accounts of Fa-Hien and Hiuen Tsang.
Trade and Connectivity:
- Connected by land and river to Taxila, and by sea to Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka.
- Key player in the maritime Silk Route.
- Traded:
  - Exports: Textiles, spices, metals.
  - Imports: Luxury goods including Roman items.
Religious and Cultural Role:
- Associated with Buddhism.
  - Tradition holds Ashoka’s children, Mahendra and Sanghamitra, departed from here to spread Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
Archaeological Findings:
- Antiquities from the Chalcolithic period and NBPW phase.
- Rouletted ware and Red polished ware of Roman origin — evidence of Roman contact.
- Terracotta figurines, coins, semi-precious stone beads, and brick structures — indicating urban character.
- Seals and stamped pottery also found.
Historical Importance:
- Highlights the economic and religious vitality of coastal Bengal.
- Illustrates the role of riverine-maritime integration in fostering long-distance trade and cultural exchange across Asia.

Lothal

In Ahmedabad district, Gujarat
During pre harappan: It was a small village.
Centre of harbour, cotton and rice-growing and bead-making industry.
City divided into a citadel and a lower town.
The constructions were made of fire dried bricks, lime and sand mortar. The remains of the city give evidence to a sophisticated drainage system.
Important findings:
- Dockyard,
- Persian Gulf Seals,
- Shell ornaments maker’s shop,
- Bead maker’s shop,
- Metal worker’s shop,
- Fire altars,
- terracotta figurine of house,
- warehouse,
- merchant house,
- impression of cloth on some of the sealing,
- twelve bathrooms in the citadel area.
- An ivory scale:- smallest-known decimal divisions in Indus civilisation.
connected to other cities through river route.
A coastal trade route had existed linking sites such as Lothal and Dholavira to Sutkagan Dor on the Makran coast.

Later Harappan culture:

Continued to be inhabited,
Much smaller population
Devoid of urban influences.
Trade and resources of the city were almost gone,
The people retained several Harappan ways in writing, pottery and utensils.

Sopara (Surparaka)

Location:
- Located in Palghar district, Maharashtra.
- Situated on the Arabian Sea coast, identified with ancient Supara in Puranas and foreign texts.
Historical Significance:
- Known to Ptolemy and the author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea.
- Important Satavahana-era seaport, active from around the 3rd century BCE to 5th century CE.
- A major rock edict of Ashoka was discovered here, affirming its political and cultural relevance.
Trade and Economic Activities:
- Functioned as a seaport and international trade centre.
- Connected with Roman Egypt, Persia, and Southeast Asia.
- Major export hub for western-bound goods.
- Known for artisanal production, especially:
  - Swords, leather goods, shoes, etc., which were in high demand in the western world.
Archaeological Findings:
- Brick wharves, warehouses, and stone anchors indicate port infrastructure.
- Coins of Indian rulers and foreign origins, Brahmi inscriptions, Roman and Indian pottery, and glass beads have been discovered.
- Relics of a Buddhist stupa and Ajivika memorial stones found.
Cultural and Religious Importance:
- A centre of religious plurality.
  - Remains linked to Buddhism, Ajivikas, and Hinduism suggest a cosmopolitan religious environment.
- The coexistence of different faiths reflects maritime-driven cultural interactions.

Masulipatnam (Machilipatnam)

In Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh.
Existed during Satavahana period.
Mentioned by Ptolemy, The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
Muslin was traded by ancient Greeks from the town
Served as the settlement of European traders : English and Dutch

Mamallapuram

In Kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu.
Developed by the Pallava King Narsimhavarman Mamalla and Rajasimhavarman in the 7 century AD.
Cave temples, monolithic rathas, sculpted reliefs and structural temples built.
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Famous monuments:
- Descent of the Ganges – a giant open-air rock relief
- Pancha Rathas (Five Chariots) –
  - Of the nine monolithic temples found in Mahabalipuram, the most important are Five Rathas known after the famous five Pandava brothers of the Mahabharata fame.
  - Each of these is carved from one single large piece of granite stone.
- Shore Temple, a structural temple along the Bay of Bengal with the entrance from the western side away from the sea.
Pallavas used the port to launch trade and diplomatic missions to Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

Korkai

In Tirunelveli district, near the mouth of the Vaigai,.
Early capital of Early Pandya.
Pandya port, celebrated for its pearls in Sangam poems and Greek accounts.
Important pearl fishing centre- excavation evidence and mentioned in The Arthashastra
BRW and locally made rouletted ware with Brahmi letters belonging to c. 200 BCE–200 CE.