Ancient political, commercial and cultural centre.
Commercial centre:
At junction of 3 major trade routes: West Asia, northern India and Central Asia.
Centre of artisanal production.
Centre of education:
Amongst the earliest universities.
Many do not consider it a university as:
teachers did not have official membership of particular colleges, and
there was no purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters, like Nalanda University.
Charaka, Chanakya, Jivaka, Panini etc are related to Taxila University.
Political centre:
Capital of Gandhara satrapy, under Achaemenian.
Alexander received submission of ruler of Taxila, Ambhi.
Taxila became a provincial capital of Mauryas.
Capital of Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and one of the capitals of Kushanas.
The Chinese pilgrims Fa Hian (5 century) and Hieun Tsang (7 century) visited Taxila. In ruin during Huen Tsang.
Sagala/ Sakala/ Sialkot
In Sialkot, West Punjab of Pakistan.
Ancient name:- Sakala.
Greek historical texts mention it.
Greek historians state that it was productive Silk regions of the Achaemenid Empire.
This was the capital of the Indo-Greek king Menander in 2 century BCE. During his reign it was centre of Buddhism.
Trading centre.
Greek coins, ancient Zoroastrian temples and Buddhist Stupas found.
Later Muhammad Ghouri established a fortress in 1181 AD.
Parihaspura
Established by Lalitaditya Muktapida of Karkota dynasty in 8th century AD, one of the greatest monarchs who ever ruled Kashmir.
The great monarch founded his capital at Parihaspura and built numerous temples of Vishnu, Shiva and Buddha.
He built agraharas viharas, and palaces at and around Parihaspura. According to Kalhana, a silver image of Vishnu was installed in the Govardanahara temple at Parihaspura.
Was an important cultural and trade centre during Lalitaditya reign, but after his death the city lost its glory.
Avantipur/ Awantipora
In Pulwama district, Jammu & Kashmir.
Kalhana’s Rajatarangini:
Temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu:- built by King Awantivarman (AD 855- 883) of Utpala dynasty when he chose the site as his capital.
Avantishvara temple:
Dedicated to lord shiva.
Built by Avantivarman.
Panchayatana type.
Gateway is double chambered.
Devoid of any ornamentation.
Main sanctum is raised on a high platform.
The ruins of temples constructed by Lalitaditya of Karkota dynasty located here.
Sisupalgarh
In Khurda disctrict, Odisha.
A ruined fortification.
One of the largest and preserved early historic fortifications in India.
Probably represents Tosali mentioned in the edicts of Ashoka at Dhauli.
Also identified by some scholars with Kalinganagara noted as the capital of the king Kharvela in Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri cave.
Antiquities which give urban touch include
plenty of iron objects,
bangles of glass and ivory,
semi-precious stones,
coin-mould.
Rouletted ware associated with the Romans and the lockets imitating the Roman coins suggests trade contacts with the foreign countries.
Sirpur(Political and Cultural centre)
On the banks of river Mahanadi, Chhattisgarh.
Once the capital of Somavanashi dynasty.
Has a rich background of traditional cultural heritage and architecture.
The Laxman temple dedicated to Vishnu, Gandheswar temple dedicated to Shiva, Buddha viharas, 1 Jain vihara, monolithic statue of Buddha and Mahavir, a 6th century Ayurvedic Snaan Kund etc are important architectural creations.
Important Buddhist centre from 6th- 10th century A.D and Hieun-Tsang visited this place.
The devastating earthquake of 12th century destroyed this city.
Viratnagar (Bairat)
Near Jaipur in Rajasthan.
Capital of the Mahajanapada of Machcha or Matsya.
Later became part of the Mauryan Empire.
Artefacts:
Ruins of Buddhist monastery,
a wood and timber shrine, and
rock-cut edict of Emperor Ashoka.
Buddhist Chaitya here is considered as the earliest free standing religious building.
Mathura
In Mathura district, UP.
Centre of craft and trade.
Textile
Junction of trade route: Uttarpatha and dakshinapatha.
Religious centre:
Buddhism,
Jainism, and
early Hinduism.
Southern capital of the Kushana/
Mathura School of Arts under the patronage of the Kushanas.
BRW, PGW, NBPW
At Sonkh, near Mathura, PGW, BRW and grey ware found.
Post-holes and a double ditch.
Beginnings of urbanization during Kushana period.
NBPW: Coins came and specialized crafts such as the manufacture of terracotta figurines, copper and iron working, and bead making.
Ahichchhatra
In Bareilly district, Uttar Pradesh.
Capital of Northern Panchala, Mahajanapada.
A brick fortification excavated.
PGW was first identified at Ahichchhatra.
PGW was followed by NBPW Period.
Panchala and Kushana coins have been found here.
Kampilya
In Farukhabad district, UP.
Capital of south Panchala, Mahajanapada.
Occupation from the PGW phase onwards.
Structural remains at PGW levels: wattle-and-daub and mud huts.
Kanyakubja/ Kannauj
Location:
Situated on the banks of the Ganga River in Kannauj district, Uttar Pradesh, it occupied a strategic position in the Gangetic plains, making it a vital centre of power and culture.
Political Importance:
Known in ancient texts as Kanyakubja, it served as the capital of multiple dynasties including the Maukharis, Pushyabhuti dynasty under Harshavardhana, Gurjara-Pratiharas, and later Rashtrakutas.
In the 7th century CE, Harshavardhana made Kannauj his imperial capital, uniting much of northern India under his rule.
After Harsha’s death, the city became the epicentre of the Tripartite Struggle (8th–10th century CE) between the Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas, each vying for control of this resource-rich and strategically crucial region.
Cultural and Diplomatic Significance:
Described by Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) as a flourishing, prosperous metropolis with numerous Buddhist monasteries, Hindu temples, gardens, and bustling markets.
It was an intellectual and religious hub during Harsha’s reign, hosting scholars, envoys, and pilgrims.
Visited by Chinese pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang, affirming its importance in international Buddhist networks.
Urban and Architectural Heritage:
Although much of its ancient grandeur has vanished, archaeological evidence—such as terracotta plaques, inscriptions, structural remains, and coins—points to a well-planned city with monumental architecture and civic infrastructure.
Later Historical Events:
During the late 12th century, Kannauj was ruled by Raja Jaichandra of the Gahadavala dynasty, a rival of Prithviraj Chauhan, around the time of Muhammad Ghori’s invasions.
In the Battle of Kannauj (1540 CE), Sher Shah Suri decisively defeated Mughal emperor Humayun, leading to the rise of the Sur Empire.
Legacy:
Though it lost political prominence, Kannauj remains celebrated for its ancient perfume industry—famous for the production of “ittar” (natural fragrances), a craft that continues to thrive.
Its rich history reflects a blend of political power, cultural vitality, religious pluralism, and enduring artisanal traditions.
Shravasti
In Shravasti district, U.P.
Centre of Buddhists and Jainas.
Capital of the Kosala Mahajanapada during 6 century BC.
On the northern trade routes.
Many ancient idols, inscriptions, stupas and viharas were found.
Birthplace of the Tirthankara Sambhavanath in Jainism.
The Chinese Pilgrim Xuanzang found the city in ruins.
PGW and NBPW site.
Structural remains at PGW levels: wattle-and-daub and mud huts.
Kaushambi
In Kashambi district, Uttar Pradesh.
Capital of Vatsa, a Mahajanapada of the 6 century B.C.
Ashokan Pillars found here.
Centre of trade.
Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited.
Excavations reveal settlements dating back to 2 millinum B.C.
PGW pottery, trace of iron etc pointing to a later Vedic settlement.
Varanasi/ Banaras
In Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh.
Related to Hinduim, Buddhism and Jainism.
Varanasi:- Capital of Kashi Mahajanapada in 6th Century BC.
Center of education for Hindus, Buddhism and Jainism.
Teaching of Vedas, the Upanishads etc. in the ashrams.
Nearby Deer Park at Sarnath, Buddha delivered his first sermon.
Chinese Pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited and attested the city as a centre of religious and artistic activities.
Parshvanath Jain temple located here.
In medieval times, several Bhakti saints (Kabir, Ravidas, Tulsidas) were related to Varanasi.
One of the 12 Jyotirlinga sites:- Kasi Vishwanath temple.
Related to salvation of Hindus.
Banaras Gharana of Hindustani Classical Music developed.
Kusinagar
In Deoria district, Uttar Pradesh.
Capital of the Mallas Mahajanapadas.
Buddhist Pilgrim place because Buddha passed away here in 483 BC.
Ashoka has visited and built a stupa.
Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited.
Artifacts and structures related to all sects of Buddhism found.
Patlaliputra
Location:
Situated in Patna district, Bihar, at the confluence of the Ganga, Son, and Gandak rivers, forming a natural “jaldurga” (water fort).
Its location provided strategic advantages for defense, communication, and control of riverine trade routes across the Indo-Gangetic plains.
Political Significance:
Originally established as a fortified outpost called Pataligrama, it became the imperial capital under Ajatashatru and later under Udayin in the 5th century BCE.
It served as the capital of several major dynasties—Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Guptas, and Palas—making it one of India’s longest-serving political capitals.
Later renamed Patna by Sher Shah Suri, who also made it his capital.
Urban Planning and Architecture:
Described by Megasthenes in Indica as a grand, rectangular, wood-fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates.
Excavations at Kumrahar have revealed:
80-pillared hall, brick structures, wooden trusses, drainage systems, and punch-marked coins, reflecting sophisticated urban planning and statecraft.
Centre of Learning and Religion:
Flourished as a major intellectual and religious centre during the Mauryan and Gupta periods.
Home to scholars like Chanakya (Kautilya) and Aryabhata, and an important site for Buddhist and Jain councils:
Third Buddhist Council held here during Ashoka’s reign.
First Jain Council was also convened in the city.
Cultural and Diplomatic Hub:
Visited by foreign emissaries and pilgrims:
Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador at Chandragupta Maurya’s court, documented city life and administration.
Fa-Hien (Faxian) in Gupta era and Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) in the 7th century described it as a prominent but partly ruined city.
Attracted merchants, scholars, monks, and artisans, reflecting its diverse and urbanized character.
Vaishali
Location:
Located in Vaishali district, Bihar, near the Gandak River.
Political Significance:
Served as the capital of the Vajji Confederacy (Vrijji Mahajanapada) during the 6th century BCE.
The Licchavis, one of the key clans of this oligarchic republic (ganasangha), ruled from Vaishali.
Considered one of the earliest examples of republican governance in ancient India.
Buddhist Significance:
Gautama Buddha delivered several sermons here.
He announced his approaching Mahaparinirvana in Vaishali.
The Second Buddhist Council (383 BCE) was convened here under King Kalasoka.
Visited by Faxian (4th century CE) and Xuanzang (7th century CE), who described its Buddhist heritage.
Amrapali, a renowned courtesan of Vaishali, is said to have become a disciple of the Buddha and appears in many Buddhist stories.
Jain Heritage:
Birthplace of Lord Mahavira, the 24th Jain Tirthankara, in 599 BCE, in Kundagrama, a suburb of ancient Vaishali.
Vaishali was an important centre of Jainism and home to a flourishing Jain community.
Architectural and Archaeological Remains:
Excavations have revealed:
A Buddhist stupa,
Ashokan pillar topped by a single lion capital,
Monastery ruins and brick stupas,
Traces of urban planning and religious structures.
Rajgir / Rajagriha
Location:
Situated in Nalanda district, Bihar, surrounded by five rocky hills.
Lies close to the modern Nalanda University complex.
Political Importance:
Served as the first capital of Magadha, flourishing under Bimbisara and Ajatashatru.
Continued as a political centre until the capital was shifted to Pataliputra by Udayin in the 5th century BCE.
Its natural hill fortification made it a highly defensible and impregnable city.
Religious Significance:
A major centre for both Buddhism and Jainism.
Gautama Buddha spent many retreat seasons here, especially at Gridhakuta (Vulture’s Peak), delivering key sermons.
Venue of the First Buddhist Council, convened shortly after Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana.
Mahavira, the 24th Jain Tirthankara, also spent time here, and the city is referenced in Jain Agamas.
Hot water springs and caves in the region are considered sacred and are used for ritual bathing and meditation.
Archaeological and Architectural Features:
Remains of cyclopean stone fortification walls, Buddhist stupas, Jain temples, and rock-cut caves.
The city layout showcases early urban planning and religious infrastructure.
Mentions in Historical Texts:
Referred to as “Rajagriha” (“House of the King”) in Buddhist Pali texts, the Mahabharata, and Jain scriptures.
Described by Faxian (5th century CE) and Xuanzang (7th century CE) in their travelogues.
Legacy:
Though Rajgir lost its political primacy after the rise of Pataliputra, it continued to flourish as a pilgrimage centre, monastic hub, and symbol of Magadhan antiquity.
Champa
Near Bhagalpur, Bihar.
Ancient capital of Anga, one of the Mahajanapadas of the 6 century.
Buddhist influence.
River port and centre of trade and carried on trade with South India and Ceylon.
Annexed to the Magadhan Empire.
Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveler, visited Champa in the 7 century.
Mahastanagarh
In Bogra District, Bangladesh.
Also called Pundranagar, the capital city of ancient Pundra kingdom.
Provincial capital of the Mauryans, the Guptas, the Palas.
Artefacts:
Silver punch marked coins,
copper cast coins,
Gupta period coins,
shards,
terracotta plaques etc.
Buddha stone sculpture,
Buddha bronze sculpture
Lokesvara stone sculpture – blending of Vishnu and Avalokitsvara,
sand stone door-frames,
pillars and lintels.
Vengi
Location:
Located in East and West Godavari districts, Andhra Pradesh.
Situated in the deltaic region of the Godavari River, near the Bay of Bengal.
A fertile and strategically important area in eastern Deccan.
Historical Importance:
Served as the capital of the Eastern Chalukyas from the 7th to 12th centuries CE.
The Eastern Chalukyas were an offshoot of the Badami Chalukyas, but evolved into an independent regional power.
Alongside the Chalukyas of Lata, they were one of the three prominent Chalukya branches.
Earlier Dynastic Phase:
Prior to the Eastern Chalukyas, the region was ruled by the Shalankayanas, with Hastivarman as a notable king.
The Allahabad Prashasti of Samudragupta mentions Hastivarman of Vengi among the kings defeated and later reinstated by the Gupta emperor.
Political Legacy:
Played a key role in Chola-Chalukya marital alliances during the 10th–11th centuries.
Became a bridge between northern and southern India in terms of politics, culture, and religion.
Laid the foundation for the later Chalukya-Chola lineage, influencing broader southern Indian politics.
Cultural Contributions:
Vengi was a center of Sanskrit and early Telugu literature.
Received royal patronage for scholars, poets, and temple architects.
Development of early Dravidian temple architecture in this region influenced the later Chola architectural style.
Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence:
Discovery of stone inscriptions, temple remains, and hero stones.
These finds reflect:
Administrative sophistication,
Temple-building activities, and
The formation of a regional Andhra identity under the Eastern Chalukyas.
Amaravati
In Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh, on banks of Krishna river.
Meghalithic, BRW and NBPW site.
Inscription in Maurya Brahmi found.
Dhanyakataka – capital of Satavahanas.
Buddhist stupa:
Buddhist Stupa and Mahachaityas with marble and limestone sculptures.
Its carved panels tell the story of Buddha.
Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited in 7 century.
Sri Amaralingeswara Swamy temple makes it a holy town for the Hindus.
Ancient School of Arts:
Flourished for nearly six centuries commencing from 200-100 BC.
Patronized first by the Satavahanas and later by the Ikshvakus.
Some Buddhist sculptures with Greco-Roman influence.
Nagarjunakonda (Vijayapuri)
In Krishna valley, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh.
Neolithic and Megalithic culture.
The city which once stood in the valley is called Vijayapuri and it was the capital of the southern line of the Ikshvaku kings (210-260 A.D) who rose into prominence after the fall of the imperial Satavahanas.
Under their patronage Buddhism flourished in this part of the country.
It was a centre of Buddhism and named after Nagarjuna, philosopher of Mahayana Buddhism.
Also various Buddhist stupas, shrines and monasteries found.
Yielded remains of canal and stadium-like structure.
Also several temples have been discovered among which the one dedicated to God Kartikeya is unique.
Also an important economic centre as large number of artisans and merchant guilds belonged to this region.
Mukhlingam
Located in Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh.
Capital city of Eastern Ganga.
Famous for Madhukashvara temple which follows the early Odisan style of art tradition.
Discovery of sherds of Rouletted Ware of Roman type and a Satavahana coin indicate its commercial importance and trade activities in early Christian era.
Manyakheta/Malkhed
Modern Malkhed in Gulbarga district, Karnataka.
Founded by Rashtrakutas (whose founder was Dantidurga) and subsequently became the capital of Rashtrakutas in 9 and 10 century.
The capital was moved to Manyakheta by Amoghavarsha.
Later it came under the control of Western Chalukyas.
It was a centre of Saivism and Vaisnavism.
Badami (Vatapi)
Location:
Located in Bagalkot district, Karnataka, nestled between rugged sandstone hills near the Agastya Lake.
Historical Significance:
Capital of the Early Chalukyas from the 6th to 8th centuries CE.
Founded in 540 CE by Pulakeshin I, the founder of the Chalukya dynasty.
Badami is also known by its ancient name Vatapi.
It was a major political, administrative, and military centre during the Chalukya reign.
Badami witnessed intense political conflicts, including its conquest and destruction by Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I, who took the title “Vatapikonda” after defeating Pulakeshin II.
Architectural Importance:
Famous for its rock-cut cave temples, representing one of the earliest stages of Chalukyan temple architecture.
Combines elements of both Nagara (north Indian) and Dravida (south Indian) architectural styles—this fusion style later matured at Aihole and Pattadakal.
The four rock-cut cave temples are carved into a cliffside:
Cave 1: Dedicated to Lord Shiva, featuring Nataraja in 18 dynamic dancing poses.
Cave 2 & 3: Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, with depictions of Trivikrama and Narasimha.
Cave 4: Dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras, especially Adinatha.
Other temples include:
Bhutanatha group of temples (on the lake’s edge) – blending Nagara and Dravida styles.
Mallikarjuna group of temples – stylistically similar to Aihole constructions.
Muktheeswara temple and Melagutti Sivalaya – early Chalukyan structural temples.
Ceiling paintings in the caves also exist, representing early attempts at mural art in southern India.
Epigraphic Evidence:
One of the earliest known Kannada inscriptions—written in Sanskrit using an early Kannada script—dated to 543 CE, from the reign of Pulakeshin I.
Inscriptions near the Bhutanatha temple and in the Jain cave provide insights into religious patronage and dynastic history.
12th-century inscriptions also found, especially in the Jain cave temple dedicated to Adinatha, indicating continued religious significance.
Religious Pluralism:
Badami’s temples represent Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Jainism, reflecting religious tolerance and artistic diversity.
This tri-religious expression is an important feature of early Deccan temple art.
Cultural and Political Legacy:
Inscriptions and temple iconography refer to military victories of the Chalukyas, including confrontations with the Pallavas and rulers of Central India.
Despite its eventual decline after conquest by the Rashtrakutas and later powers, Badami retained its religious and cultural importance.
Pratishthana (Paithan)
Location:
Situated in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra, on the banks of the Godavari River.
Strategically located on the ancient trade route linking northern and southern India.
Political Importance:
Known in ancient times as Pratishthana, it was the capital of the Satavahana dynasty from around 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE.
Played a formative role in shaping early Deccan polity, administration, and culture.
Trade and Economic Significance:
Served as a major inland emporium, connected with Tagara, and further to ports like Kalyan and Bharuch (Broach).
Mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and known to Greco-Roman traders.
Exports: Cotton textiles, ivory, beads.
Imports: Wine, metals, horses.
Religious and Cultural Legacy:
A centre for Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain traditions in the ancient and early medieval periods.
Later became a Vaishnavite pilgrimage site and was the home of Saint Eknath, a major Bhakti movement figure.
Archaeological and Literary Evidence:
Finds include coins, pottery, structural remains, and references in texts like Gatha Saptashati.
Mentioned in Ashokan edicts and early Sanskrit and Prakrit literature, indicating its role in literary patronage, craft production, and social diversity.
Continuity and Modern Relevance:
One of the few ancient cities that has retained its urban character for over 2000 years.
Famous today for Paithani silk saris, representing a living legacy of textile craftsmanship.
Potali
Potana/Podana or Potali, identified with modern Bodhan in Maharashtra.
Capital of Assaka Mahajanapada located on the Godavari river.
The Godavari separated Assaka from the neighbouring kingdom.
Jataka stories suggest that Assaka may at some point have come under the sway of Kashi and it achieved a military victory over Kalinga in eastern India.
The Buddhist text mentions about a ruler of Assaka, Brahmadatta who ruled from Potali.
Mahismati
It is situated on the bank of river Narmada in Madhya Pradesh.
Southern capital of Avanti, a Mahajanapada of 6 century BC.
Trading centre and famous for the cotton goods in ancient times.
It was well connected with Rajgir and Paithan.
Ujjain
On the river Shipra, Madhya Pradesh.
Called Ujjaini and was the northern capital of Avanti Mahajanapadas of the 6 century BC.
With rise of Magadhan power, it came under the Magadhan Empire.
During the reign of Mauryan King Bindusara, Ashoka was the provincial governor of Ujjain.
NBPW found their way to the northern Deccan from the Gangetic plains through Ujjain.
Coins of Kshatrapas and Kushanas were found.
There is evidence of bead manufacturing here.
Associated with a king who called himself Vikramaditya and started the Vikram Samvat Era in 58 BC after defeating the Sakas.
Kalidasa was related to Ujjayini.
During Mughal time, Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh built the astronomical observatory here.
Most of the temples of Ujjain were constructed during Maratha period.
Mahakaleshwar Temple (among the 12 Jyotirlingas) situated here.
Famous for the Kumbh Mela.
Halebidu (Dwarasamudra)
Location:
Situated in Hassan district, Karnataka, near the Dwarasamudra Lake, Halebidu was historically known as Dwarasamudra, the capital city of the Hoysala dynasty.
Political Significance:
Halebidu served as the capital of the Hoysalas from the 12th to 14th centuries CE, especially under rulers like Vishnuvardhana and Ballala II.
It emerged as a prominent imperial and cultural centre in the Deccan during this period.
Architectural Grandeur:
The city is globally renowned for its Hoysala-style temples, especially the Hoysaleswara Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva.
Built from soft chloritic schist (soapstone), the temple walls are adorned with exquisite carvings of:
Scenes from Hindu epics: Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Bhagavata Purana.
Mythological figures, animals, birds, and shilabalikas (graceful female figures).
Other notable structures include:
Kedareshwara Temple (Shaiva tradition)
Two Jain Basadis with finely carved sculptures and pillars
Two monolithic Nandi statues guarding the Hoysaleswara Temple.
Cultural and Religious Pluralism:
Halebidu reflected the religious diversity and tolerance of the Hoysalas.
Temples dedicated to Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Jainism coexisted, showing patronage to multiple faiths.
The city’s artistic output was marked by refined sculpture, architectural experimentation, and religious syncretism.
Political Decline:
The city suffered two major invasions by the Delhi Sultanate:
1311 CE by Malik Kafur, general of Alauddin Khalji
1326 CE by Muhammad bin Tughlaq
These attacks led to widespread destruction and the eventual shift of the capital, leaving Dwarasamudra in ruins.
Its modern name, Halebidu, literally means “Old City,” referring to its abandoned status post-devastation.
Legacy and Recognition:
Halebidu today stands as a testament to Hoysala art, architecture, and urban culture.
Its temples, along with those at Belur and Somanathapura, form part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site nomination titled “Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas.”
Kanchipuram
Kanchipuram district, Tamil Nadu. On the banks of Vegavathi river.
Capital of Pallavas from 6th to 8th century A.D. later came under influence of Cholas, Vijayanagara empire.
Centre of art and architecture and learning.
Kailasanathar Temple (built by Pallava King Rajasimha)
Vaikuntha Perumal Temple.
A religious centre education for Jainism and Buddhism.
Educational institutions called Ghatikas.
Centre of the religious and literary activity of the Vaishnavites and Saivites Bhakti saints,Alvars and Nayanars.
Silk industrial center-pure mulberry silk and zari work is the hallmark of products from this centre.
Tanjore/ Thanjavur
In Thanjavur District, Tamilnadu.
Capital of medieval Cholas.
Important center of religion, art, and architecture.
Chola Temples are UNESCO World Heritage Monuments.
Brihadeeswara Temple:
Built in the 11 century by Raja Raja Chola I.
Dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva.
Nandi (second largest in India), carved out of a single block of granite, guards the entrance of the sanctuary.
The walls of the sanctum are covered with wall paintings from the Chola and Nayaka periods.
It was replicated in the Gangaikonda Cholesvarar Temple constructed by Raja Raja’s son Rajendra Chola I.
Tanjore painting:
Dates back to early 17 century, the period of Nayakas of Thanjavur.
Episodes from religious texts visualised.
Even secular subjects were depicted.
Also famous for handicrafts,hand woven silk, on glass and bronze icons.
Many epigraphs, inscriptions, coins etc belonging to different kings have been discovered.
Madurai/ Madura
In Madurai district, Tamilnadu.
Capital of the Pandya.
Central seat of Tamil literature and learning.
Third Sangam was held here.
Mentioned by Megasthenes and Kautilya.Kautilya mentions it as an important center for cotton fabric.
Maduraikkanchi, part of the Pattuppattu describes Madura city, its palace, temples, houses, and markets.
Also Sangam text mentions it as important trade center and capital city,
Centre of crafts:
making of gold ornaments,
ivory work,
inlay work,
bangle making,
The Arthashastra mentions Madurai as a centre of fine cotton textiles.
References to its traders selling pearls and precious stones.
Historical monuments:
Meenakshi Amman Temple
Dedicated to Parvati (Meenakshi) and her consort Shiva (Sundareswara) was rebuilt by Madurai Nayakas,
Dravida Style
surrounded by gopurams
Each gopuram is a multi-storeyed structure, covered with thousands of stone figures of animals, gods and demons.
17 and 18 century paintings of Nayaka period.
Tirumalai Nayak Palace.
Korkai
In Tirunelveli district, Tamilnadu, near the mouth of the Vaigai.
First capital of Pandyas.
Pandya port, celebrated for its pearls in Sangam poems and Greek accounts.
Important pearl fishing centre– excavation evidence and mentioned in the Arthashastra.
Due to silting of delta it became inaccessible to ships and the city gradually decayed.
BRW and locally made rouletted ware with Brahmi letters belonging to c. 200 BCE–200 CE.
Vallabhi
It was situated on an inlet of the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay), northwest of the port of Bhavnagar in the state of Gujarat.
Capital of the Maitraka Dynasty (480-775 CE).
Established by the founder of the dynasty, Senapati Bhatarka.
Centre of learning, Buddhist monasteries.
Visited by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang and Yijing in 7th century.
Second Jaina council under Devardhi held in 6th century CE when Jaina scriptures assumed their present form.
The city has now vanished, but it is identified with a village, Vala, where numerous copper plate inscriptions and seals of the Maitrakas have been found.
Pragjyotishpur
Location:
Identified with modern-day Guwahati, in Kamrup district, Assam.
Strategically located between the Indo-Gangetic plains and the northeastern highlands.
Etymology:
The name derives from ‘Prag’ (East) and ‘Jyotisa’ (Light), meaning “City of Eastern Light.”
Political Significance:
Served as the capital of the ancient Kamarupa Kingdom, especially under the Varman (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha, and Pala dynasties (up to 12th century CE).
Mentioned in epics and Puranic texts as a powerful eastern frontier kingdom.
Referred to as a ‘Pratyanta Desha’ (frontier region) in the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta, acknowledging its submission through tribute.
Bhaskaravarman was its most notable ruler, known for his alliance with Harshavardhana.
Religious and Cultural Importance:
A major Shaiva-Shakta centre, with the Kamakhya Temple becoming a prominent site of Tantric worship.
Associated with astrology and ancient observatories, enhancing its identity as a mystical and spiritual city.
Hosted numerous temples, but was noted by Xuanzang for absence of Buddhist monasteries (sangharamas).
Epigraphic and Archaeological Evidence:
Nidhanpur copper plate inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman detail administrative structure, land grants, and temple patronage.
Xuanzang’s account describes its natural beauty, favourable climate, and people who were devout believers in devas (Hindu deities), not Buddhism.
Cultural Legacy:
Pragjyotishpur acted as a gateway to the Northeast, blending Vedic, Puranic, and tribal traditions, and continues to shape the cultural identity of Assam.
Anuradhapura
In Anuradhapura District, North Central province, Sri Lanka.
Sacred city for Buddhism
ancient capital of Sri Lanka.
This city was established around a cutting from the ‘tree of enlightenment’, the Buddha’s fig tree, brought there in the 3rd century B.C. by Sanghamitta, the founder of an order of Buddhist nuns.
According to Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa,
Ashoka had sent his son Mahinda, to Srilanka.
He met king Devanampiya Tissa and preached the doctrine.
In later period, the royal family and nobility of Sri Lanka strongly supported Buddhism.
Art works featuring depictions of Avalokitesvara, the Bodhisattva of Mercy and Compassion, became popular.
Ancient monuments like Buddhist temples, stupas etc. found.
Saketa/ Ayoddhya
On the right bank of the river Sarayu in Faizabad district of UP.
Southern capital of Mahajanpada Kosala. Its other capital was at Savatthi (Sravasti).
Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha.
Birthplace first and fourth Jaina tirthankara.
A Buddhist text, the Majjhima Nikaya mentions Buddha as a Kosalan.
Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism taught in Kosala.
In the time of king Mahakosala, the conquered neighboring kingdom of Kashi had become an integral part of the Kosala kingdom.
Mahakosala was succeeded by his son Prasenajit. He was a follower of Buddha.
NBPW phase:
Houses made of burnt brick and terracotta ring wells.
A grey terracotta figure of a Jaina saint, assigned to the 4th/3rd century BCE, is among the earliest Jaina images found so far.
Later period:
punch-marked coins,
uninscribed cast coins,
inscribed copper coins,
a number of terracotta sealings.
Rouletted ware suggests trade links with eastern India, where this type of pottery occurs in large quantities.
In mythology, Ayodhya is related to Lord Rama.
Hastinapur
In Meerut district, UP.
Capital of Kuru.
Jaina tradition:
Place where Rishabha, the first tirthankara, lived.
Mahavira visited.
OCP followed by PGW.
Habitation:
Wattle-and-daub and mud huts.
Unbaked bricks.
Chert and jasper weights found.
Horse bones found.
2nd century BCE–3rd century CE: (Urbanisation)
Pottery:
Wheel-turned red ware.
Designs such as fish, leaves, flowers, svastikas, triratnas, loops, circles, and other geometric patterns.
