Ancient Capital Cities of India

Purushpura

• Modern Peshawar in NWF province of Pakistan.
• Capital of Kushana ruler Kanishka (2 century AD).
• Kushana period:
  • Sculptures,
  • Buddhist stupa,
  • Buddhist Chaitya.
• Trade centre as it lied on old silk route..
• Centre of Buddhist learning.
• Mentioned by Chinese pilgrim Faxian and Xuanzang.

Taxila

• In Rawalpindi district, Pakistan.
• Ancient political, commercial and cultural centre.
• Commercial centre:
  • At junction of 3 major trade routes: West Asia, northern India and Central Asia.
  • Centre of artisanal production.
• Centre of education:
  • Amongst the earliest universities.
  • Many do not consider it a university as:
    • teachers did not have official membership of particular colleges, and
    • there was no purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters, like Nalanda University.
  • Charaka, Chanakya, Jivaka, Panini etc are related to Taxila University.
• Political centre:
  • Capital of Gandhara satrapy, under Achaemenian.
  • Alexander received submission of ruler of Taxila, Ambhi.
  • Taxila became a provincial capital of Mauryas.
  • Capital of Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and one of the capitals of Kushanas.
• The Chinese pilgrims Fa Hian (5 century) and Hieun Tsang (7 century) visited Taxila. In ruin during Huen Tsang.

Sagala/ Sakala/ Sialkot

• In Sialkot, West Punjab of Pakistan.
• Ancient name:- Sakala.
• Greek historical texts mention it.
• Greek historians state that it was productive Silk regions of the Achaemenid Empire.
• This was the capital of the Indo-Greek king Menander in 2 century BCE. During his reign it was centre of Buddhism.
• Trading centre.
• Greek coins, ancient Zoroastrian temples and Buddhist Stupas found.
• Later Muhammad Ghouri established a fortress in 1181 AD.

Parihaspura

• Established by Lalitaditya Muktapida of Karkota dynasty in 8th century AD, one of the greatest monarchs who ever ruled Kashmir.
• The great monarch founded his capital at Parihaspura and built numerous temples of Vishnu, Shiva and Buddha.
• He built agraharas viharas, and palaces at and around Parihaspura. According to Kalhana, a silver image of Vishnu was installed in the Govardanahara temple at Parihaspura.
• Was an important cultural and trade centre during Lalitaditya reign, but after his death the city lost
  its glory.

Avantipur/ Awantipora

• In Pulwama district, Jammu & Kashmir.
• Kalhana’s Rajatarangini:
  • Temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu:- built by King Awantivarman (AD 855- 883) of Utpala dynasty when he chose the site as his capital.
• Avantishvara temple:
  • Dedicated to lord shiva.
  • Built by Avantivarman.
  • Panchayatana type.
  • Gateway is double chambered.
  • Devoid of any ornamentation.
  • Main sanctum is raised on a high platform.
• The ruins of temples constructed by Lalitaditya of Karkota dynasty located here.

Sisupalgarh

• In Khurda disctrict, Odisha.
• A ruined fortification.
• One of the largest and preserved early historic fortifications in India.
• Probably represents Tosali mentioned in the edicts of Ashoka at Dhauli.
• Also identified by some scholars with Kalinganagara noted as the capital of the king Kharvela in Hathigumpha inscription at Udayagiri cave.
• Antiquities which give urban touch include
  • plenty of iron objects,
  • bangles of glass and ivory,
  • semi-precious stones,
  • coin-mould.
• Rouletted ware associated with the Romans and the lockets imitating the Roman coins suggests trade contacts with the foreign countries.

Sirpur(Political and Cultural centre)

• On the banks of river Mahanadi, Chhattisgarh.
• Once the capital of Somavanashi dynasty.
• Has a rich background of traditional cultural heritage and architecture.
• The Laxman temple dedicated to Vishnu, Gandheswar temple dedicated to Shiva, Buddha viharas, 1 Jain vihara, monolithic statue of Buddha and Mahavir, a 6th century Ayurvedic Snaan Kund etc are important architectural creations.
• Important Buddhist centre from 6th- 10th century A.D and Hieun-Tsang visited this place.
• The devastating earthquake of 12th century destroyed this city.

Viratnagar (Bairat)

• Near Jaipur in Rajasthan.
• Capital of the Mahajanapada of Machcha or Matsya.
• Later became part of the Mauryan Empire.
• Artefacts:
  • Ruins of Buddhist monastery,
  • a wood and timber shrine, and
  • rock-cut edict of Emperor Ashoka.
• Buddhist Chaitya here is considered as the earliest free standing religious building.

Mathura

• In Mathura district, UP.
• Centre of craft and trade.
  • Textile
  • Junction of trade route: Uttarpatha and dakshinapatha.
• Religious centre:
  • Buddhism,
  • Jainism, and
  • early Hinduism.
• Southern capital of the Kushana/
• Mathura School of Arts under the patronage of the Kushanas.
• BRW, PGW, NBPW
• At Sonkh, near Mathura, PGW, BRW and grey ware found.
• Post-holes and a double ditch.
• Beginnings of urbanization during Kushana period.
• NBPW: Coins came and specialized crafts such as the manufacture of terracotta figurines, copper and iron working, and bead making.

Ahichchhatra

• In Bareilly district, Uttar Pradesh.
• Capital of Northern Panchala, Mahajanapada.
• A brick fortification excavated.
• PGW was first identified at Ahichchhatra.
• PGW was followed by NBPW Period.
• Panchala and Kushana coins have been found here.

Kampilya

• In Farukhabad district, UP.
• Capital of south Panchala, Mahajanapada.
• Occupation from the PGW phase onwards.
• Structural remains at PGW levels: wattle-and-daub and mud huts.

Kanyakubja/ Kannauj

• Location:
  • Situated on the banks of the Ganga River in Kannauj district, Uttar Pradesh, it occupied a strategic position in the Gangetic plains, making it a vital centre of power and culture.
• Political Importance:
  • Known in ancient texts as Kanyakubja, it served as the capital of multiple dynasties including the Maukharis, Pushyabhuti dynasty under Harshavardhana, Gurjara-Pratiharas, and later Rashtrakutas.
  • In the 7th century CE, Harshavardhana made Kannauj his imperial capital, uniting much of northern India under his rule.
  • After Harsha’s death, the city became the epicentre of the Tripartite Struggle (8th–10th century CE) between the Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas, and Rashtrakutas, each vying for control of this resource-rich and strategically crucial region.
• Cultural and Diplomatic Significance:
  • Described by Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) as a flourishing, prosperous metropolis with numerous Buddhist monasteries, Hindu temples, gardens, and bustling markets.
  • It was an intellectual and religious hub during Harsha’s reign, hosting scholars, envoys, and pilgrims.
  • Visited by Chinese pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang, affirming its importance in international Buddhist networks.
• Urban and Architectural Heritage:
  • Although much of its ancient grandeur has vanished, archaeological evidence—such as terracotta plaques, inscriptions, structural remains, and coins—points to a well-planned city with monumental architecture and civic infrastructure.
• Later Historical Events:
  • During the late 12th century, Kannauj was ruled by Raja Jaichandra of the Gahadavala dynasty, a rival of Prithviraj Chauhan, around the time of Muhammad Ghori’s invasions.
  • In the Battle of Kannauj (1540 CE), Sher Shah Suri decisively defeated Mughal emperor Humayun, leading to the rise of the Sur Empire.
• Legacy:
  • Though it lost political prominence, Kannauj remains celebrated for its ancient perfume industry—famous for the production of “ittar” (natural fragrances), a craft that continues to thrive.
  • Its rich history reflects a blend of political power, cultural vitality, religious pluralism, and enduring artisanal traditions.

Shravasti

• In Shravasti district, U.P.
• Centre of Buddhists and Jainas.
• Capital of the Kosala Mahajanapada during 6 century BC.
• On the northern trade routes.
• Many ancient idols, inscriptions, stupas and viharas were found.
• Birthplace of the Tirthankara Sambhavanath in Jainism.
• The Chinese Pilgrim Xuanzang found the city in ruins.
• PGW and NBPW site.
• Structural remains at PGW levels: wattle-and-daub and mud huts.

Kaushambi

• In Kashambi district, Uttar Pradesh.
• Capital of Vatsa, a Mahajanapada of the 6 century B.C.
• Ashokan Pillars found here.
• Centre of trade.
• Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited.
• Excavations reveal settlements dating back to 2 millinum B.C.
• PGW pottery, trace of iron etc pointing to a later Vedic settlement.

Varanasi/ Banaras

• In Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh.
• Related to Hinduim, Buddhism and Jainism.
• Varanasi:- Capital of Kashi Mahajanapada in 6th Century BC.
• Center of education for Hindus, Buddhism and Jainism.
  • Teaching of Vedas, the Upanishads etc. in the ashrams.
• Nearby Deer Park at Sarnath, Buddha delivered his first sermon.
• Chinese Pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited and attested the city as a centre of religious and artistic activities.
• Parshvanath Jain temple located here.
• In medieval times, several Bhakti saints (Kabir, Ravidas, Tulsidas) were related to Varanasi.
• One of the 12 Jyotirlinga sites:- Kasi Vishwanath temple.
• Related to salvation of Hindus.
• Banaras Gharana of Hindustani Classical Music developed.

Kusinagar

• In Deoria district, Uttar Pradesh.
• Capital of the Mallas Mahajanapadas.
• Buddhist Pilgrim place because Buddha passed away here in 483 BC.
• Ashoka has visited and built a stupa.
• Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang visited.
• Artifacts and structures related to all sects of Buddhism found.

Patlaliputra

• Location:
  • Situated in Patna district, Bihar, at the confluence of the Ganga, Son, and Gandak rivers, forming a natural “jaldurga” (water fort).
  • Its location provided strategic advantages for defense, communication, and control of riverine trade routes across the Indo-Gangetic plains.
• Political Significance:
  • Originally established as a fortified outpost called Pataligrama, it became the imperial capital under Ajatashatru and later under Udayin in the 5th century BCE.
  • It served as the capital of several major dynasties—Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Guptas, and Palas—making it one of India’s longest-serving political capitals.
  • Later renamed Patna by Sher Shah Suri, who also made it his capital.
• Urban Planning and Architecture:
  • Described by Megasthenes in Indica as a grand, rectangular, wood-fortified city with 570 towers and 64 gates.
  • Excavations at Kumrahar have revealed:
    • 80-pillared hall, brick structures, wooden trusses, drainage systems, and punch-marked coins, reflecting sophisticated urban planning and statecraft.
• Centre of Learning and Religion:
  • Flourished as a major intellectual and religious centre during the Mauryan and Gupta periods.
  • Home to scholars like Chanakya (Kautilya) and Aryabhata, and an important site for Buddhist and Jain councils:
    • Third Buddhist Council held here during Ashoka’s reign.
    • First Jain Council was also convened in the city.
• Cultural and Diplomatic Hub:
  • Visited by foreign emissaries and pilgrims:
    • Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador at Chandragupta Maurya’s court, documented city life and administration.
    • Fa-Hien (Faxian) in Gupta era and Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) in the 7th century described it as a prominent but partly ruined city.
  • Attracted merchants, scholars, monks, and artisans, reflecting its diverse and urbanized character.

Vaishali

• Location:
  • Located in Vaishali district, Bihar, near the Gandak River.
• Political Significance:
  • Served as the capital of the Vajji Confederacy (Vrijji Mahajanapada) during the 6th century BCE.
  • The Licchavis, one of the key clans of this oligarchic republic (ganasangha), ruled from Vaishali.
  • Considered one of the earliest examples of republican governance in ancient India.
• Buddhist Significance:
  • Gautama Buddha delivered several sermons here.
  • He announced his approaching Mahaparinirvana in Vaishali.
  • The Second Buddhist Council (383 BCE) was convened here under King Kalasoka.
  • Visited by Faxian (4th century CE) and Xuanzang (7th century CE), who described its Buddhist heritage.
  • Amrapali, a renowned courtesan of Vaishali, is said to have become a disciple of the Buddha and appears in many Buddhist stories.
• Jain Heritage:
  • Birthplace of Lord Mahavira, the 24th Jain Tirthankara, in 599 BCE, in Kundagrama, a suburb of ancient Vaishali.
  • Vaishali was an important centre of Jainism and home to a flourishing Jain community.
• Architectural and Archaeological Remains:
  • Excavations have revealed:
    • A Buddhist stupa,
    • Ashokan pillar topped by a single lion capital,
    • Monastery ruins and brick stupas,
    • Traces of urban planning and religious structures.

Rajgir / Rajagriha

• Location:
  • Situated in Nalanda district, Bihar, surrounded by five rocky hills.
  • Lies close to the modern Nalanda University complex.
• Political Importance:
  • Served as the first capital of Magadha, flourishing under Bimbisara and Ajatashatru.
  • Continued as a political centre until the capital was shifted to Pataliputra by Udayin in the 5th century BCE.
  • Its natural hill fortification made it a highly defensible and impregnable city.
• Religious Significance:
  • A major centre for both Buddhism and Jainism.
  • Gautama Buddha spent many retreat seasons here, especially at Gridhakuta (Vulture’s Peak), delivering key sermons.
  • Venue of the First Buddhist Council, convened shortly after Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana.
  • Mahavira, the 24th Jain Tirthankara, also spent time here, and the city is referenced in Jain Agamas.
  • Hot water springs and caves in the region are considered sacred and are used for ritual bathing and meditation.
• Archaeological and Architectural Features:
  • Remains of cyclopean stone fortification walls, Buddhist stupas, Jain temples, and rock-cut caves.
  • The city layout showcases early urban planning and religious infrastructure.
• Mentions in Historical Texts:
  • Referred to as “Rajagriha” (“House of the King”) in Buddhist Pali texts, the Mahabharata, and Jain scriptures.
  • Described by Faxian (5th century CE) and Xuanzang (7th century CE) in their travelogues.
• Legacy:
  • Though Rajgir lost its political primacy after the rise of Pataliputra, it continued to flourish as a pilgrimage centre, monastic hub, and symbol of Magadhan antiquity.

Champa

• Near Bhagalpur, Bihar.
• Ancient capital of Anga, one of the Mahajanapadas of the 6 century.
• Buddhist influence.
• River port and centre of trade and carried on trade with South India and Ceylon.
• Annexed to the Magadhan Empire.
• Hiuen Tsang, a Chinese traveler, visited Champa in the 7 century.

Mahastanagarh

• In Bogra District, Bangladesh.
• Also called Pundranagar, the capital city of ancient Pundra kingdom.
• Provincial capital of the Mauryans, the Guptas, the Palas.
• Artefacts:
  • Silver punch marked coins,
  • copper cast coins,
  • Gupta period coins,
  • shards,
  • terracotta plaques etc.
  • Buddha stone sculpture,
  • Buddha bronze sculpture
  • Lokesvara stone sculpture – blending of Vishnu and Avalokitsvara,
  • sand stone door-frames,
  • pillars and lintels.

Vengi

• Location:
  • Located in East and West Godavari districts, Andhra Pradesh.
  • Situated in the deltaic region of the Godavari River, near the Bay of Bengal.
  • A fertile and strategically important area in eastern Deccan.
• Historical Importance:
  • Served as the capital of the Eastern Chalukyas from the 7th to 12th centuries CE.
  • The Eastern Chalukyas were an offshoot of the Badami Chalukyas, but evolved into an independent regional power.
  • Alongside the Chalukyas of Lata, they were one of the three prominent Chalukya branches.
• Earlier Dynastic Phase:
  • Prior to the Eastern Chalukyas, the region was ruled by the Shalankayanas, with Hastivarman as a notable king.
  • The Allahabad Prashasti of Samudragupta mentions Hastivarman of Vengi among the kings defeated and later reinstated by the Gupta emperor.
• Political Legacy:
  • Played a key role in Chola-Chalukya marital alliances during the 10th–11th centuries.
  • Became a bridge between northern and southern India in terms of politics, culture, and religion.
  • Laid the foundation for the later Chalukya-Chola lineage, influencing broader southern Indian politics.
• Cultural Contributions:
  • Vengi was a center of Sanskrit and early Telugu literature.
  • Received royal patronage for scholars, poets, and temple architects.
  • Development of early Dravidian temple architecture in this region influenced the later Chola architectural style.
• Archaeological and Epigraphic Evidence:
  • Discovery of stone inscriptions, temple remains, and hero stones.
  • These finds reflect:
    • Administrative sophistication,
    • Temple-building activities, and
    • The formation of a regional Andhra identity under the Eastern Chalukyas.

Amaravati

• In Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh, on banks of Krishna river.
• Meghalithic, BRW and NBPW site.
• Inscription in Maurya Brahmi found.
• Dhanyakataka – capital of Satavahanas.
• Buddhist stupa:
  • Buddhist Stupa and Mahachaityas with marble and limestone sculptures.
  • Its carved panels tell the story of Buddha.
• Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang visited in 7 century.
• Sri Amaralingeswara Swamy temple makes it a holy town for the Hindus.
• Ancient School of Arts:
  • Flourished for nearly six centuries commencing from 200-100 BC.
  • Patronized first by the Satavahanas and later by the Ikshvakus.
  • Some Buddhist sculptures with Greco-Roman influence.

Nagarjunakonda (Vijayapuri)

• In Krishna valley, Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh.
• Neolithic and Megalithic culture.
• The city which once stood in the valley is called Vijayapuri and it was the capital of the southern line of the Ikshvaku kings (210-260 A.D) who rose into prominence after the fall of the imperial Satavahanas.
• Under their patronage Buddhism flourished in this part of the country.
• It was a centre of Buddhism and named after Nagarjuna, philosopher of Mahayana Buddhism.
• Also various Buddhist stupas, shrines and monasteries found.
• Yielded remains of canal and stadium-like structure.
• Also several temples have been discovered among which the one dedicated to God Kartikeya is unique.
• Also an important economic centre as large number of artisans and merchant guilds belonged to this region.

Mukhlingam

• Located in Srikakulam district of Andhra Pradesh.
• Capital city of Eastern Ganga.
• Famous for Madhukashvara temple which follows the early Odisan style of art tradition.
• Discovery of sherds of Rouletted Ware of Roman type and a Satavahana coin indicate its
  commercial importance and trade activities in early Christian era.

Manyakheta/Malkhed

• Modern Malkhed in Gulbarga district, Karnataka.
• Founded by Rashtrakutas (whose founder was Dantidurga) and subsequently became the capital of Rashtrakutas in 9 and 10 century.
• The capital was moved to Manyakheta by Amoghavarsha.
• Later it came under the control of Western Chalukyas.
• It was a centre of Saivism and Vaisnavism.

Badami (Vatapi)

• Location:
  • Located in Bagalkot district, Karnataka, nestled between rugged sandstone hills near the Agastya Lake.
• Historical Significance:
  • Capital of the Early Chalukyas from the 6th to 8th centuries CE.
  • Founded in 540 CE by Pulakeshin I, the founder of the Chalukya dynasty.
  • Badami is also known by its ancient name Vatapi.
  • It was a major political, administrative, and military centre during the Chalukya reign.
  • Badami witnessed intense political conflicts, including its conquest and destruction by Pallava ruler Narasimhavarman I, who took the title “Vatapikonda” after defeating Pulakeshin II.
• Architectural Importance:
  • Famous for its rock-cut cave temples, representing one of the earliest stages of Chalukyan temple architecture.
  • Combines elements of both Nagara (north Indian) and Dravida (south Indian) architectural styles—this fusion style later matured at Aihole and Pattadakal.
  • The four rock-cut cave temples are carved into a cliffside:
    • Cave 1: Dedicated to Lord Shiva, featuring Nataraja in 18 dynamic dancing poses.
    • Cave 2 & 3: Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, with depictions of Trivikrama and Narasimha.
    • Cave 4: Dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras, especially Adinatha.
  • Other temples include:
    • Bhutanatha group of temples (on the lake’s edge) – blending Nagara and Dravida styles.
    • Mallikarjuna group of temples – stylistically similar to Aihole constructions.
    • Muktheeswara temple and Melagutti Sivalaya – early Chalukyan structural temples.
  • Ceiling paintings in the caves also exist, representing early attempts at mural art in southern India.
• Epigraphic Evidence:
  • One of the earliest known Kannada inscriptions—written in Sanskrit using an early Kannada script—dated to 543 CE, from the reign of Pulakeshin I.
  • Inscriptions near the Bhutanatha temple and in the Jain cave provide insights into religious patronage and dynastic history.
  • 12th-century inscriptions also found, especially in the Jain cave temple dedicated to Adinatha, indicating continued religious significance.
• Religious Pluralism:
  • Badami’s temples represent Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Jainism, reflecting religious tolerance and artistic diversity.
  • This tri-religious expression is an important feature of early Deccan temple art.
• Cultural and Political Legacy:
  • Inscriptions and temple iconography refer to military victories of the Chalukyas, including confrontations with the Pallavas and rulers of Central India.
  • Despite its eventual decline after conquest by the Rashtrakutas and later powers, Badami retained its religious and cultural importance.

Pratishthana (Paithan)

• Location:
  • Situated in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra, on the banks of the Godavari River.
  • Strategically located on the ancient trade route linking northern and southern India.
• Political Importance:
  • Known in ancient times as Pratishthana, it was the capital of the Satavahana dynasty from around 2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE.
  • Played a formative role in shaping early Deccan polity, administration, and culture.
• Trade and Economic Significance:
  • Served as a major inland emporium, connected with Tagara, and further to ports like Kalyan and Bharuch (Broach).
  • Mentioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and known to Greco-Roman traders.
  • Exports: Cotton textiles, ivory, beads.
  • Imports: Wine, metals, horses.
• Religious and Cultural Legacy:
  • A centre for Brahmanical, Buddhist, and Jain traditions in the ancient and early medieval periods.
  • Later became a Vaishnavite pilgrimage site and was the home of Saint Eknath, a major Bhakti movement figure.
• Archaeological and Literary Evidence:
  • Finds include coins, pottery, structural remains, and references in texts like Gatha Saptashati.
  • Mentioned in Ashokan edicts and early Sanskrit and Prakrit literature, indicating its role in literary patronage, craft production, and social diversity.
• Continuity and Modern Relevance:
  • One of the few ancient cities that has retained its urban character for over 2000 years.
  • Famous today for Paithani silk saris, representing a living legacy of textile craftsmanship.

Potali

• Potana/Podana or Potali, identified with modern Bodhan in Maharashtra.
• Capital of Assaka Mahajanapada located on the Godavari river.
• The Godavari separated Assaka from the neighbouring kingdom.
• Jataka stories suggest that Assaka may at some point have come under the sway of Kashi and it achieved a military victory over Kalinga in eastern India.
• The Buddhist text mentions about a ruler of Assaka, Brahmadatta who ruled from Potali.

Mahismati

• It is situated on the bank of river Narmada in Madhya Pradesh.
• Southern capital of Avanti, a Mahajanapada of 6 century BC.
• Trading centre and famous for the cotton goods in ancient times.
• It was well connected with Rajgir and Paithan.

Ujjain

• On the river Shipra, Madhya Pradesh.
• Called Ujjaini and was the northern capital of Avanti Mahajanapadas of the 6 century BC.
• With rise of Magadhan power, it came under the Magadhan Empire.
• During the reign of Mauryan King Bindusara, Ashoka was the provincial governor of Ujjain.
• NBPW found their way to the northern Deccan from the Gangetic plains through Ujjain.
• Coins of Kshatrapas and Kushanas were found.
• There is evidence of bead manufacturing here.
• Associated with a king who called himself Vikramaditya and started the Vikram Samvat Era in 58 BC after defeating the Sakas.
• Kalidasa was related to Ujjayini.
• During Mughal time, Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh built the astronomical observatory here.
• Most of the temples of Ujjain were constructed during Maratha period.
• Mahakaleshwar Temple (among the 12 Jyotirlingas) situated here.
• Famous for the Kumbh Mela.

Halebidu (Dwarasamudra)

• Location:
  • Situated in Hassan district, Karnataka, near the Dwarasamudra Lake, Halebidu was historically known as Dwarasamudra, the capital city of the Hoysala dynasty.
• Political Significance:
  • Halebidu served as the capital of the Hoysalas from the 12th to 14th centuries CE, especially under rulers like Vishnuvardhana and Ballala II.
  • It emerged as a prominent imperial and cultural centre in the Deccan during this period.
• Architectural Grandeur:
  • The city is globally renowned for its Hoysala-style temples, especially the Hoysaleswara Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva.
  • Built from soft chloritic schist (soapstone), the temple walls are adorned with exquisite carvings of:
    • Scenes from Hindu epics: Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Bhagavata Purana.
    • Mythological figures, animals, birds, and shilabalikas (graceful female figures).
  • Other notable structures include:
    • Kedareshwara Temple (Shaiva tradition)
    • Two Jain Basadis with finely carved sculptures and pillars
    • Two monolithic Nandi statues guarding the Hoysaleswara Temple.
• Cultural and Religious Pluralism:
  • Halebidu reflected the religious diversity and tolerance of the Hoysalas.
  • Temples dedicated to Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Jainism coexisted, showing patronage to multiple faiths.
  • The city’s artistic output was marked by refined sculpture, architectural experimentation, and religious syncretism.
• Political Decline:
  • The city suffered two major invasions by the Delhi Sultanate:
    • 1311 CE by Malik Kafur, general of Alauddin Khalji
    • 1326 CE by Muhammad bin Tughlaq
  • These attacks led to widespread destruction and the eventual shift of the capital, leaving Dwarasamudra in ruins.
  • Its modern name, Halebidu, literally means “Old City,” referring to its abandoned status post-devastation.
• Legacy and Recognition:
  • Halebidu today stands as a testament to Hoysala art, architecture, and urban culture.
  • Its temples, along with those at Belur and Somanathapura, form part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site nomination titled “Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas.”

Kanchipuram

• Kanchipuram district, Tamil Nadu. On the banks of Vegavathi river.
• Capital of Pallavas from 6th to 8th century A.D. later came under influence of Cholas, Vijayanagara empire.
• Centre of art and architecture and learning.
  • Kailasanathar Temple (built by Pallava King Rajasimha)
  • Vaikuntha Perumal Temple.
  • A religious centre education for Jainism and Buddhism.
  • Educational institutions called Ghatikas.
• Centre of the religious and literary activity of the Vaishnavites and Saivites Bhakti saints, Alvars and Nayanars.
• Silk industrial center-pure mulberry silk and zari work is the hallmark of products from this centre.

Tanjore/ Thanjavur

• In Thanjavur District, Tamilnadu.
• Capital of medieval Cholas.
• Important center of religion, art, and architecture.
• Chola Temples are UNESCO World Heritage Monuments.
• Brihadeeswara Temple:
  • Built in the 11 century by Raja Raja Chola I.
  • Dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva.
  • Nandi (second largest in India), carved out of a single block of granite, guards the entrance of the sanctuary.
  • The walls of the sanctum are covered with wall paintings from the Chola and Nayaka periods.
  • It was replicated in the Gangaikonda Cholesvarar Temple constructed by Raja Raja’s son Rajendra Chola I.
• Tanjore painting:
  • Dates back to early 17 century, the period of Nayakas of Thanjavur.
  • Episodes from religious texts visualised.
  • Even secular subjects were depicted.
• Also famous for handicrafts, hand woven silk, on glass and bronze icons.
• Many epigraphs, inscriptions, coins etc belonging to different kings have been discovered.

Madurai/ Madura

• In Madurai district, Tamilnadu.
• Capital of the Pandya.
• Central seat of Tamil literature and learning.
• Third Sangam was held here.
• Mentioned by Megasthenes and Kautilya.Kautilya mentions it as an important center for cotton fabric.
• Maduraikkanchi, part of the Pattuppattu describes Madura city, its palace, temples, houses, and markets.
• Also Sangam text mentions it as important trade center and capital city,
• Centre of crafts:
  • making of gold ornaments,
  • ivory work,
  • inlay work,
  • bangle making,
  • The Arthashastra mentions Madurai as a centre of fine cotton textiles.
• References to its traders selling pearls and precious stones.
• Historical monuments:
  • Meenakshi Amman Temple
    • Dedicated to Parvati (Meenakshi) and her consort Shiva (Sundareswara) was rebuilt by Madurai Nayakas,
    • Dravida Style
    • surrounded by gopurams
    • Each gopuram is a multi-storeyed structure, covered with thousands of stone figures of animals, gods and demons.
    • 17 and 18 century paintings of Nayaka period.
  • Tirumalai Nayak Palace.

Korkai

• In Tirunelveli district, Tamilnadu, near the mouth of the Vaigai.
• First capital of Pandyas.
• Pandya port, celebrated for its pearls in Sangam poems and Greek accounts.
• Important pearl fishing centre– excavation evidence and mentioned in the Arthashastra.
• Due to silting of delta it became inaccessible to ships and the city gradually decayed.
• BRW and locally made rouletted ware with Brahmi letters belonging to c. 200 BCE–200 CE.

Vallabhi

• It was situated on an inlet of the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay), northwest of the port of Bhavnagar in the state of Gujarat.
• Capital of the Maitraka Dynasty (480-775 CE).
• Established by the founder of the dynasty, Senapati Bhatarka.
• Centre of learning, Buddhist monasteries.
• Visited by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang and Yijing in 7th century.
• Second Jaina council under Devardhi held in 6th century CE when Jaina scriptures assumed their present form.
• The city has now vanished, but it is identified with a village, Vala, where numerous copper plate inscriptions and seals of the Maitrakas have been found.

Pragjyotishpur

• Location:
  • Identified with modern-day Guwahati, in Kamrup district, Assam.
  • Strategically located between the Indo-Gangetic plains and the northeastern highlands.
• Etymology:
  • The name derives from ‘Prag’ (East) and ‘Jyotisa’ (Light), meaning “City of Eastern Light.”
• Political Significance:
  • Served as the capital of the ancient Kamarupa Kingdom, especially under the Varman (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha, and Pala dynasties (up to 12th century CE).
  • Mentioned in epics and Puranic texts as a powerful eastern frontier kingdom.
  • Referred to as a ‘Pratyanta Desha’ (frontier region) in the Allahabad Pillar inscription of Samudragupta, acknowledging its submission through tribute.
  • Bhaskaravarman was its most notable ruler, known for his alliance with Harshavardhana.
• Religious and Cultural Importance:
  • A major Shaiva-Shakta centre, with the Kamakhya Temple becoming a prominent site of Tantric worship.
  • Associated with astrology and ancient observatories, enhancing its identity as a mystical and spiritual city.
  • Hosted numerous temples, but was noted by Xuanzang for absence of Buddhist monasteries (sangharamas).
• Epigraphic and Archaeological Evidence:
  • Nidhanpur copper plate inscriptions of Bhaskaravarman detail administrative structure, land grants, and temple patronage.
  • Xuanzang’s account describes its natural beauty, favourable climate, and people who were devout believers in devas (Hindu deities), not Buddhism.
• Cultural Legacy:
  • Pragjyotishpur acted as a gateway to the Northeast, blending Vedic, Puranic, and tribal traditions, and continues to shape the cultural identity of Assam.

Anuradhapura

• In Anuradhapura District, North Central province, Sri Lanka.
• Sacred city for Buddhism
• ancient capital of Sri Lanka.
• This city was established around a cutting from the ‘tree of enlightenment’, the Buddha’s fig tree, brought there in the 3rd century B.C. by Sanghamitta, the founder of an order of Buddhist nuns.
• According to Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa,
  • Ashoka had sent his son Mahinda, to Srilanka.
  • He met king Devanampiya Tissa and preached the doctrine.
  • In later period, the royal family and nobility of Sri Lanka strongly supported Buddhism.
• Art works featuring depictions of Avalokitesvara, the Bodhisattva of Mercy and Compassion, became popular.
• Ancient monuments like Buddhist temples, stupas etc. found.

Saketa/ Ayoddhya

• On the right bank of the river Sarayu in Faizabad district of UP.
• Southern capital of Mahajanpada Kosala. Its other capital was at Savatthi (Sravasti).
• Kosala was ultimately merged into Magadha.
• Birthplace first and fourth Jaina tirthankara.
• A Buddhist text, the Majjhima Nikaya mentions Buddha as a Kosalan.
• Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism taught in Kosala.
• In the time of king Mahakosala, the conquered neighboring kingdom of Kashi had become an integral part of the Kosala kingdom.
• Mahakosala was succeeded by his son Prasenajit. He was a follower of Buddha.
• NBPW phase:
  • Houses made of burnt brick and terracotta ring wells.
  • A grey terracotta figure of a Jaina saint, assigned to the 4th/3rd century BCE, is among the earliest Jaina images found so far.
• Later period:
  • punch-marked coins,
  • uninscribed cast coins,
  • inscribed copper coins,
  • a number of terracotta sealings.
  • Rouletted ware suggests trade links with eastern India, where this type of pottery occurs in large quantities.
• In mythology, Ayodhya is related to Lord Rama.

Hastinapur

• In Meerut district, UP.
• Capital of Kuru.
• Jaina tradition:
  • Place where Rishabha, the first tirthankara, lived.
  • Mahavira visited.
• OCP followed by PGW.
• Habitation:
  • Wattle-and-daub and mud huts.
  • Unbaked bricks.
• Chert and jasper weights found.
• Horse bones found.
• 2nd century BCE–3rd century CE: (Urbanisation)
  • Pottery:
    • Wheel-turned red ware.
    • Designs such as fish, leaves, flowers, svastikas, triratnas, loops, circles, and other geometric patterns.
  • Habitation:
    • Planed settlement.
    • Burnt brick, ring well found.
  • Artefacts:
    • Objects: iron, copper, ivory, terracotta figurines.
    • rings and beads
    • potsherds and seal
    • Coins– Yaudheyas and Kushana
  • Terracotta:
    • Humped bull
    • torso of the bodhisattva Maitreya

Vanji or Kuravur/Karur

• In Tiruchirapalli district, Tamilnadu.
• Inland capital of early Chera dynasty during Sangam age.
• A political centre as well as centre of crafts and trade.
• Pottery:
  • BRW,
  • Roman amphorae,
  • locally made rouletted ware.
• Coins:
  • Roman copper coin
  • Copper coins with Chera symbols such as the bow and arrow and silver portrait coins, indicate that a Chera mint may have been located here.
• Literary sources refer to jewel making as an craft.
  • Confirmed by the discovery of finger rings with various motifs carved on them.

Uraiyur

• On banks of river Kaveri, Tiruchirapalli, Tamil Nadu.
• Capital of the early Cholas.
• Periplus of Erythrean Sea mentions it as Araguru.
• Sangam poems:
  • Describe it as a great fortified city.
  • mention burial grounds full of stones on its outskirts probably megaliths.
• Was a major cotton trade center and pearl fishing center.
• Mentioned in Ashokan inscription and Satavahana inscription.
• Pottery:
  • BRW,
  • russet-coated painted ware,
  • rouletted ware,
  • arretine ware,
  • red-slipped ware.
  • Graffiti and inscriptions in Brahmi.
• A rectangular cistern found.

Vilinam/ Vizhinjam

• Capital of Ay dynasty in 8th / 9th century AD.
• It was a port located near Thiruvananthapuram.
• The region was the scene of many battles between Kulashekhara dynasty and Chola dynasty.
• Raja Raja Chola defeated the Pandyan King and captured the port of Vilinam.
• Recent excavations show that it had maritime trade with coastal region of Red sea during Roman Period as suggested by discovery of Amphora Potsherd.

Kapilvastu

• In Kapilvastu ditrict, Nepal (25 km northwest of Lumbini).
• UNESCO World Heritage Site.
• Capital of the Shakya kingdom.
• King Suddhodana and Queen Mayadevi of Shakya kingdom gave birth to Gautam Buddha.
• Chinese pilgrims Faxian and Xuanzang made pilgrimages to the site .
• Ancient trade centre.

Gangaikondacholapuram

• Location:
  • Situated in Ariyalur district, Tamil Nadu, in the fertile Kaveri delta region.
• Historical and Political Significance:
  • Founded by Rajendra Chola I in the 11th century CE to commemorate his victorious expedition to North India, especially to the Ganga River.
  • The name literally means “City of the Chola who brought the Ganga.”
  • It replaced Thanjavur as the imperial capital of the Chola Empire and remained so for over 250 years.
  • Symbolized the Chola pan-Indian imperial ambition and military prowess.
• Architectural Importance:
  • Gangaikondacholisvaram Temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is the architectural and cultural highlight of the city.
  • The temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site under “Great Living Chola Temples.”
  • It represents the Dravida style of temple architecture and reflects the mature phase of Chola temple-building tradition.
  • Notable features include:
    • A graceful vimana, slightly shorter but more elegant than the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur.
    • Exquisite sculptures and carvings on hard granite, such as:
      • Dancing Nataraja
      • Ardhanarishvara (half-Shiva, half-Parvati)
    • Use of bronze for idol-making, marking the zenith of Chola bronze art.
• Religious and Cultural Centre:
  • The temple was an active site for Shaivite rituals, royal donations, and patronage of temples and priests.
  • Tamil inscriptions from the temple provide insight into the administrative structure, endowments, and religious ceremonies.
  • It was a centre for Tamil literary activity, religious scholarship, and imperial ideology propagation.
• Strategic Location:
  • Positioned strategically to control the Kaveri delta and trade routes to the eastern coast and Southeast Asia.
  • Served as both an economic hub and a symbolic assertion of Chola supremacy over peninsular India and beyond.
• Legacy:
  • Gangaikondacholapuram stands as a testament to Chola power, architectural brilliance, and cultural grandeur.
  • It reflects how art, religion, and statecraft were intricately intertwined in the Chola imperial system.

Aihole

• In Bijapur district, Karnataka.
• It is east of Pattadakal, while Badami is to the west of both.
• First capital of western Chalukyas (later moved to Badami).
• Chalukyan architecture, with many stone temples dating from 5th century CE.
  • Earliest structural temples.
  • Among the seventy temples found at Aihole, four are important.
    • Ladh Khan temple is flat-roofed structure consisting of a pillared hall.
    • Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya.
    • Huchimalligudi temple.
    • The Jain temple at Meguti.
• Caves:
  • Ravana Phadi cave- rocks cut temples.
  • Jain cave temple
  • A Buddhist Chaitya Cave- partly rockcut structure.
• Aihole inscription:
  • Aihole Prasasti in Meguti Temple
  • Composed by Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakesin II in 634 A.D.
  • In Sanskrit language and old Karnataka script
  • Detailed account of Pulakesin II’s exploit against his neighbouring kingdoms like the Pallavas.
  • Describes the victory of Pulakesin II against Harshavardhana.

Besnagar (Vidisha)

• Location:
  • Located in Vidisha district, Madhya Pradesh, a few kilometers north of Sanchi, and close to Bhopal.
  • Anciently known as Besnagar and also referred to as Bhilsa in some texts.
• Political and Administrative Importance:
  • Functioned as a regional capital during the Mauryan Empire.
  • Later became a prominent administrative and commercial hub under the Shungas, Satavahanas, and Guptas.
  • It was also the capital of the Shunga dynasty.
• Cultural and Religious Significance:
  • A major site of cultural syncretism, where Brahmanical, Buddhist, Jain, and foreign (Greek) influences coexisted.
  • Important mentions in Buddhist, Jain, and Brahmanical literature.
  • The site exhibits early instances of Bhagavata (Vasudeva Krishna) worship.
• Heliodorus Pillar (Besnagar Pillar / Garuda Pillar):
  • Monolithic freestanding stone column, erected around 113 BCE.
  • Raised by Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador of Indo-Greek king Antialkidas to the court of a Shunga king.
  • The pillar is surmounted by a sculpture of Garuda.
  • Its Brahmi inscription states that it was dedicated to god Vasudeva (Krishna), marking early foreign patronage of Indian religion.
• Archaeological Findings:
  • Excavations have revealed:
    • Urban structures,
    • Coin hoards,
    • Terracotta figurines,
    • Temples and evidence of craft and trade activity.
• Proximity to Other Sites:
  • Close to the Udayagiri Caves, which are rich in Gupta-era rock-cut reliefs.
  • Near Sanchi, indicating close religious and artistic connections with Buddhist architecture and monastic activity.

Thanesar (Ancient Sthanishvara)

• Location:
  • Situated in Kurukshetra district, Haryana, on the banks of the Ghaggar River.
• Political Significance:
  • Served as the capital of the Pushyabhuti (Vardhana) dynasty in the 6th–7th century CE.
  • Harshavardhana ruled from Thanesar before shifting his capital to Kannauj.
  • Functioned as a northern imperial centre during Harsha’s reign.
• Religious and Cultural Centre:
  • A prominent Hindu pilgrimage town, closely associated with Mahabharata traditions.
  • Famous religious sites include the Mahadev Temple and Bhishma Kund.
  • It was a significant centre of Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Buddhism under Harsha’s patronage.
  • Hosted temples, monasteries, and educational institutions, reflecting a vibrant religious and intellectual life.
• Foreign Accounts and Historical Events:
  • Described by Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) as a prosperous and culturally rich city.
  • Mahmud of Ghazni attacked Thanesar in 1011 CE, destroying temples and looting wealth.
  • Site of the Battle of Thanesar between Akbar and the Rajputs, marking its later strategic significance.

Bagram (Ancient Kapisa)

• Location:
  • Situated in Afghanistan, about 60 km north of Kabul, nestled within the Hindu Kush foothills.
• Historical Significance:
  • Known in antiquity as Kapisa, later called Alexandria on the Caucasus.
  • Founded or refounded by Alexander the Great around 329 BCE.
  • Served as the summer capital of the Kushan Empire during the 1st century CE.
• Strategic Importance:
  • Controlled critical east–west and north–south Silk Road trade routes.
  • Linked northern India, Central Asia, and Bactria via mountain passes.
  • Acted as a vital node for both trade and diplomacy.
• Begram Treasure (Begram Hoard):
  • Excavated in the 1930s, it included:
    • Bronze artefacts, carved ivories, enamelled glassware, coins, and lacquerware.
    • Items originated from Greece, Rome, China, and India.
  • Highlights Bagram’s role as a global luxury goods hub.
• Cultural Syncretism:
  • Artefacts show a fusion of multiple cultures:
    • Greco-Roman: Enamelled glass and metalwork.
    • Chinese: Lacquer bowls.
    • Indian: Intricately carved ivory panels.
  • Reflects a cosmopolitan society of artisans, traders, and patrons from diverse regions.
• Later History and Continuity:
  • Remained important under the Hephthalites, Turkic, and early Islamic rulers.
  • Modern archaeological layers continue to reveal Bagram’s strategic and cultural relevance across centuries.

Pushkalavati

• Location:
  • Situated in Charsadda district, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, in present-day Pakistan.
• Historical Significance:
  • Served as the earliest capital of the Gandhara region, dating back to 6th century BCE.
  • Became part of:
    • The Achaemenid Empire,
    • The Mauryan Empire,
    • And later the Indo-Greek realms.
• Urban and Buddhist Centre:
  • Major archaeological sites include Bala Hisar and Shaikhan Dheri.
  • Discoveries include:
    • Urban planning with mud-brick structures,
    • Buddhist stupas, indicating its role as a religious and educational hub, especially during Mauryan and Kushan periods.
• Hellenistic and Central Asian Influence:
  • Post-Alexander invasion, it came under:
    • Indo-Greek, and later Indo-Scythian control.
  • Excavations revealed:
    • Greek coins,
    • Terracotta figurines,
    • Artifacts showing cross-cultural urbanism and fusion of artistic styles.
• Mention in Ancient Texts:
  • Known as Pushkalavati in Pali literature.
  • Identified as Peucelaotis by Greco-Roman geographers, confirming its presence in ancient trans-regional trade and political networks.