Taxila

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Located in Rawalpindi district, Pakistan.
Ancient political, commercial and cultural centre.
Commercial centre:
- At junction of 3 major trade routes: West Asia, northern India and Central Asia.
- Centre of artisanal production.
Centre of education:
- Taxila University world’s first known University made it a prominent learning centre.
- Students from all across the world came to study in 64 different fields like Vedas, Philosophy, Astronomy etc.
- Many do not consider it a university as:
  - teachers did not have official membership of particular colleges, and
  - there was no purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters, like Nalanda University.
- Charaka, Chanakya, Jivaka, Panini etc are related to Taxila University.
Political centre:
- Capital of Gandhara satrapy, under Achaemenian.
- Alexander received submission of ruler of Taxila, Ambhi.
- Taxila became a provincial capital of Mauryas.
- Capital of Indo-Parthian Kingdom, and one of the capitals of Kushanas.
The Chinese pilgrims Fa Hian (5 century) and Hieun Tsang (7 century) visited Taxila.
The city sank into insignificance and was finally destroyed in the 5th century by the invading Hunas.

Vallabhi

Location:
- Situated in Bhavnagar district, Gujarat, near the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay).
- Strategically located along coastal and inland trade routes, connecting it to western India and international maritime networks.
Political Background:
- Served as the capital of the Maitraka dynasty from the 6th to 8th century CE.
- The Maitrakas, originally feudatories of the Guptas, established an independent kingdom with Vallabhi as the political and cultural hub.
- Prominent Maitraka rulers included Shiladitya I (Dharmaditya) and Shiladitya III, under whom Vallabhi reached the height of its influence.
Educational Importance:
- Vallabhi became a major centre of higher education, often considered on par with Nalanda in its scholastic prestige in western India.
- The institution flourished between 6th–8th centuries CE, offering advanced education in:
  - Philosophy
  - Buddhism and Jainism
  - Law and administration
  - Grammar and linguistics
  - Political science and economy
Religious Significance:
- Vallabhi was a multi-religious hub, with inscriptions dedicated to Brahmanical deities, Buddhism, and Jainism—demonstrating religious harmony and state patronage of diverse traditions.
Jain and Buddhist Scholarship:
- Vallabhi was especially noted for its Jain scholarship, becoming a major intellectual centre for the Svetambara Jain tradition.
- It also gained repute among Buddhists, attracting Buddhist scholars and monastics from other regions.
- Several Jain councils or assemblies are believed to have been held here, including the compilation of sacred Jain texts.
- Gunamati and Sthiramati – two famous Buddhist scholars graduated from here.
- Second Jain Council was held here in the 6th century CE, under the leadership of Devardhigani Kshamasramana.
Academic Features:
- Visited by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang and Yijingin 7th century.
- According to Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), the Chinese pilgrim who visited India in the 7th century CE:
  - Vallabhi had over 6,000 students and teachers.
  - It featured libraries, classrooms, and debate halls, emphasizing both religious and secular education.
  - Students came from across India and abroad, making it a cosmopolitan centre of learning.
Cultural and Strategic Role:
- Due to its location near the sea, Vallabhi also served as a commercial hub that facilitated the exchange of goods and ideas.
- It fostered a multi-religious atmosphere, accommodating Jain, Buddhist, and Brahmanical scholars, and acted as a cultural melting pot.
Decline:
- Vallabhi’s prominence declined by the late 8th century CE, likely due to political upheavals and invasions (possibly by Arabs or later regional powers).
- The exact cause of its destruction remains uncertain, but archaeological remains suggest a sudden decline.
Legacy:
- Though largely overshadowed by Nalanda in historical memory, Vallabhi’s contribution to Jainism and western Indian education remains significant.
- It exemplifies how regional centres rivalled and complemented better-known academic institutions in ancient India.

Varanasi/ Banaras/ Kasi

Location:
- Situated in Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh, on the banks of the Ganga River.
Historical and Political Importance:
- Capital of the Kashi Mahajanapada in the 6th century BCE.
- One of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.
Religious Significance:
- A sacred city for Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism:
  - Hinduism:
    - Believed to be founded by Lord Shiva.
    - Home to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple, one of the 12 Jyotirlingas.
    - Considered a place of moksha (liberation) for Hindus.
  - Buddhism:
    - Near Sarnath (Deer Park), where Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon (Dharmachakra Pravartana).
  - Jainism:
    - Associated with Parshvanatha, the 23rd Jain Tirthankara, who was born here.
    - Important Svetambara Jain temples are located in the city.
Educational and Cultural Centre:
- Major centre of learning since Vedic times:
  - Ashrams and gurukulas taught Vedas, Upanishads, grammar, philosophy, astronomy, and rituals.
- Described by Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) in the 7th century CE as a flourishing centre of religious learning and art.
Medieval Religious Movements:
- Important centre for the Bhakti movement:
  - Saints like Kabir, Ravidas, and Tulsidas lived and preached here.
  - Tulsidas composed Ramcharitmanas in Varanasi.
Artistic and Musical Legacy:
- Birthplace of the Banaras Gharana of Hindustani Classical Music.
- Known for its rich traditions in dance, music, and crafts, including silk weaving (Banarasi sarees).

Nalanda

Located in Nalanda district’s Rajgir in the state of Bihar, and close to the ancient city of Pataliputra.
Naianda university established by Kumaragupta during 5th century A.D
- Received continued support from later rulers such as Harshavardhana and the Pala kings.
Taranatha, the 17 century Tibetan Lama, states that the 3 century BCE Mauryan Emperor, Ashoka, built a great temple at Nalanda.
World’s first university to have residential quarters for both students and teachers
Mahavihara (University):
- Flourished during Gupta, Harsha and Pala times.
- A seal identifies Sakraditya (Kumargupta of 5 century) as founder.
- In 7th century Chinese Pilgrims like Hieun Tsang and I-tsing studied here to learn Buddhist practices.
  - I-tsing notes that revenues from 200 villages (as opposed to 100 in Hieun Tsang’s time) assigned toward the maintenance of Nalanda.
- Largest libarary of ancient world, Library called Dharmaganja.
- Teaching of religious (mainly Mahayana) and other subjects like grammar, logic, literature, astrology, astronomy, and medicine.
- Students from all over the world specially SouthEast Asia and Persia, Turkey came here to study Buddhism, Philosophy, Literature, etc.
- Influence of Vajrayana during Palas.
Destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji in 1200 CE.
Government of India restarted this university in 2014.
UNESCO World Heritage Site status was granted in 2016.

Odantapuri (Odantapura Mahavihara)

Location:
- Situated in modern Bihar Sharif, Nalanda district, Bihar.
- Located close to the ancient university towns of Nalanda and Rajgir.
Founding and Patronage:
- Founded by Pala king Gopala (8th century CE), the first ruler of the Pala dynasty.
- Established as a Buddhist Mahavihara (monastic university) and became one of the five great Mahaviharas in eastern India.
Academic Significance:
- Functioned as a major centre of Buddhist learning, particularly Tantric and Vajrayana Buddhism.
- According to Tibetan sources, the Mahavihara housed around 12,000 students and monks.
- Served as a model for the Tibetan monastic system, influencing the development of Buddhist institutions in Tibet.
Religious and Cultural Role:
- Along with Nalanda, Vikramshila, Jagaddala, and Somapura, Odantapuri was part of the Panchamahavihara network—linked together under Pala patronage to form a coordinated system of Buddhist education.
Decline and Destruction:
- Declined by the 11th century, possibly due to internal decline and external invasions.
- Sacked and destroyed, along with Nalanda and Vikramshila, by Bakhtiyar Khalji around 1200 CE, marking the end of major Buddhist institutions in India.

Vikramashila

Its location is now the site of Antichak village, Bhagalpur district in Bihar, near the banks of the Ganga River, close to the present-day village of Antichak.
Founded in the late 8th century CE by Pala king Dharmapala (reigned c. 770–810 CE).
- Established to complement and supplement Nalanda as a centre for higher Buddhist learning, especially focusing on the Vajrayana and Tantric traditions.
Religious and Educational Importance:
- Vikramshila was a leading Mahavihara (monastic university) alongside Nalanda, Odantapuri, Somapura, and Jagaddala.
- It became an important centre for Vajrayana Buddhism, particularly for training in Tantric rituals, metaphysics, Buddhist logic, and meditation.
- Scholars were trained for missionary work, particularly in Tibet, Nepal, and Southeast Asia.
Famous Alumni:
- Atisha Dipankara Shrijnana, one of the most revered Buddhist philosophers, studied and taught at Vikramshila before going to Tibet, where he played a key role in the revival of Tibetan Buddhism.
International Reputation:
- The institution attracted students and scholars from Tibet, Sri Lanka, Sumatra, and other parts of Southeast Asia.
- It helped disseminate Buddhist doctrines across Asia, reinforcing India’s status as a global knowledge hub.
Architectural Features:
- The university had a massive square monastery with 208 residential cells for monks arranged around a central courtyard.
- A cruciform stupa (cross-shaped) in the centre served as the main worship area.
- Other features included:
  - Prayer halls, lecture halls, meditation rooms
  - Elaborately decorated terracotta plaques depicting scenes from Buddhist mythology, animals, and human figures.
  - Brick-built stupas and votive shrines in the surrounding area.
Destruction and Decline:
- Like Nalanda, Vikramshila was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji in the early 13th century CE (c. 1193 CE), resulting in the collapse of institutionalized Buddhism in eastern India.
Legacy:
- Despite its destruction, Vikramshila played a vital role in the transmission of Buddhist philosophy to Tibet and beyond.
- It continues to be studied for its contributions to Buddhist scholasticism, art, and Indo-Tibetan cultural links.
- The site has been partially excavated and is now protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Somapura University:

In Naogaon District, Bangladesh.
A major Buddhist learning centre.
Also teachings of Jainism and Sanatana Dharma practised.
A Buddhist Mahavihara.
Built by Pala king Dharmapala (known from excavation at Paharpur and the seals bearing the inscription).
Paharpur pillar inscription mentions Pala kings.
Evidence of the rise of Mahayana Buddhism (mainly Vajrayana trend) in Bengal from the 7th century onwards.
UNESCO World Heritage Site.
According to Tibetan sources, five great Mahaviharas:
- Vikramashila;
- Nalanda;
- Somapura Mahavihara;
- Odantapuri;
- Jaggadala.
The Nalanda Inscription of Vipula Shrimitra mentions fire as cause of destruction of university in 11th century.

Jagaddala

In Naogaon District, Bangladesh.
Mavihara founded by Pala king Ramapala.
Centre for the study of Vajrayana Buddhism.
Many books translated to Tibetan language at Jagaddala.
Buddhist teacher Sakya Sri Bhadra, seeing that Nalanda, Vikramsila, and Odantapuri in ruins after the Muslim invasion, entered Jagaddala for his studies.
He was responsible for the propagation of Tatntric Buddhism in Tibet.
In early 13th Century, Muslim invaders sack Jagaddala.

Ujjain

Located on the banks of Kshipra river, Madhyapradesh.
Major learning centre in ancient India in the field of linguistics, astronomy, astrology, arithmetic and classical arts.
Samrat Ashoka completed a major part of education here.
Many important literary personalities like Kalidas emerged from this centre.

Pushpagiri

Flourished in Cuttack and Jajpur district, Odisha (on Langudi hills).
Established in ancient Kalinga Kingdom in third century AD and flourished for 800 years.
Major ancient centre of learning,Buddhist seat of learning.
Mentioned in the travelogues of Chinese traveler Huien Tsang.
Excavation reveals:
- stupas
- Buddhist rock-cut sculptures
- pillars,
- Brahmi inscription,
- terracotta seals and
- NBPW.

Nagarjunakonda

In Guntur district of A.P.
Neolithic and Megalithic culture.
Post holes found.
Known as Vijaypuri- capital of the Ikshvaku kings.
Buddhist site:
- A centre of is Buddhism and Buddhist learning.
- Named after Nagarjuna, a Buddhist philosopher.
- Maha Stupa, Chaitya, vihara etc found.
- The inscriptions show royal (by queen of Ikshvaku) and non-royals sponsership of construction of temples and monasteries.
Inhabited by merchants and artisans organized in guilds.

Kanchipuram

In Kanchipuram district, Tamil Nadu.
Capital of Early Chola and Pallava.
Ancient centre of learning for Tamil and Sanskrit scholars from the time of Pallavas and even before during Sangam age.
Centre of art and architecture and learning.
- Kailasanathar Temple (built by Pallava King Rajasimha)
- Vaikuntha Perumal Temple.
- A religious centre for advanced education for Jainism and Buddhism.
- Educational institutions called Ghatikas.
Centre of the religious and literary activity of the Vaishnavites and Saivites Bhakti saints, Alvars and Nayanars.
Known for hand woven silk sarees.