Philosophy Optional Question Paper 2026

The UPSC Philosophy Optional Question Paper 2026 for the Civil Services Mains examination is reproduced below in full: Philosophy Paper-I and Paper-II, Section A and Section B, with verbatim official questions and marks for every question as UPSC printed them. For topic-wise categorization across past 25+ years, explore our comprehensive repository on Philosophy Optional Topic-Wise PYQs. You can also refer to the complete Philosophy Optional Syllabus for detailed micro-topic mappings.

Philosophy Optional Question Paper-I (2026)

Time Allowed: Three Hours · Maximum Marks: 250
Eight questions divided into two sections. Question 1 and Question 5 are compulsory, and three more are to be attempted choosing at least one from each section.

Section ‘A’: History and Problems of Philosophy (Western Philosophy)

1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: 10×5=50
   (a) How does Spinoza explain the relationship between states of mind and bodily processes? 10
   (b) Explain the distinction between Intuitive knowledge and Demonstrative knowledge as propounded by Locke. 10
   (c) Explain Hegel’s idea that the concept of the Absolute as being is the concept of the Absolute as becoming as a process of self-development. 10
   (d) Compare and contrast the notion of entelechy as presented in Aristotle’s and Leibniz’s philosophy. 10
   (e) “I can prove now, for instance, that two human hands exist.” How does Moore use this illustration to prove the existence of an external world? Critically discuss. 10
2. (a) What, according to Aristotle, is the fundamental problem of metaphysics? Discuss this in relation with Aristotle’s account of the essence of the world, where he rejects the views of both the Atomists and Plato. 20
   (b) How does Hume account for ideas of reason? How does Kant respond to Hume’s views in this regard? Critically discuss. 15
   (c) Describe Sartre’s notion of consciousness as ‘nothing’. How is it different from Husserl’s notion of consciousness? Discuss. 15
3. (a) Why are states of consciousness ascribed to anything at all and why are they ascribed to the same things to which we also ascribe physical properties? How does Strawson answer these questions in his work Individuals? 20
   (b) Explain Heidegger’s conception of authenticity and inauthenticity as modes of Dasein’s being. 15
   (c) Can words be viewed as the ideas in the mind of the person who uses them? Answer with reference to the philosophy of later Wittgenstein. 15
4. (a) “Wittgenstein’s difficulty about not being able to say anything within a given language about the structure of that language can be met by the idea of a hierarchy of languages.” Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons and justifications for your answer. 20
   (b) Analyze and discuss the different ways in which Kant and Hegel conceived the relationship between reality and our thinking about reality. 15
   (c) How did the logical positivists try to make philosophy a handmaid to science and establish a unified language of science? Why did their project fail? Discuss. 15

Section ‘B’: History and Problems of Philosophy (Indian Philosophy)

5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: 10×5=50
   (a) According to Nyaya view of inference (Anumana), what are the characteristics that ascertain the validity of inferential sign (Hetu)? Discuss. 10
   (b) How does the Buddhist theory of momentariness problematize the issue of human action and responsibility? Critically discuss. 10
   (c) Is Purusha one or many? Explain and examine the Samkhya position in this context. 10
   (d) Critically explain the nature of Samavaya (inherence) as propounded in Vaisheshika philosophy. 10
   (e) Explain, as per Yoga philosophy, the nature of Samadhi with special reference to the difference between Samprajnata Samadhi and Asamprajnata Samadhi. 10
6. (a) “A mango tree is grown out of a mango seed.” How do the Samkhya philosophers explain this process through their theory of causation by rejecting their rival perspectives? 20
   (b) Explain the basic characteristics of Sri Aurobindo’s Integral Yoga for the realization of supramental consciousness through triple transformation. 15
   (c) Bring out the main points of contestation between Naiyayikas and Prabhakara Mimamsakas with reference to knowledge through words (Shabdabodha). 15
7. (a) Critically explain the arguments presented by the Akhyativadins for explaining erroneous cognition. Evaluate the arguments against Akhyativadins by the Anyathakhyativadins. 20
   (b) Explain the meaning of seven steps of judgement (Saptabhanginaya) and its application in Jaina’s Syadvada for advocating a philosophy of non-absolutism (Anekantavada). 15
   (c) Do you agree with Nimbarka’s explanation of the nature of God, Souls and Matter? Justify your answer. 15
8. (a) Present an account of Upamana as an instrument of knowledge (Pramana). How is Nyaya view of Upamana different from Mimamsa view? Discuss. 20
   (b) Critically explain Ramanuja’s conception of Brahman with special reference to the difficulties in explaining the relation of Brahman to Spirit (Cit) and Matter (Acit). 15
   (c) Why does the Dualistic School of Vedanta consider that differences (Bhedas) have separate existence and constitute the unique nature of things? Answer with reference to the theory of five-fold difference (Pancavidhabheda). 15

Philosophy Optional Question Paper-II (2026)

Time Allowed: Three Hours · Maximum Marks: 250
Eight questions divided into two sections. Question 1 and Question 5 are compulsory, and three more are to be attempted choosing at least one from each section.

Section ‘A’: Socio-Political Philosophy

1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: 10×5=50
   (a) Why does Rawls consider it necessary that the two principles of justice be applied in lexical order? Explain. 10
   (b) Is Plato’s vision of an ideal state compatible with the rights and liberties of individual citizens? Discuss. 10
   (c) Anarchism is not an independent political ideology in itself, rather it is inspired by liberalism on the one hand and socialism on the other. Analyze. 10
   (d) On what grounds does Marxism criticize pure democracy? 10
   (e) How does value based education address the problem of corruption? 10
2. (a) Evaluate the importance of Kautilya’s theory of Rajamandala in the context of sovereignty. 20
   (b) Does providing land and property rights to women constitute a necessary condition or a sufficient condition or both for ensuring social equality among the genders ? Discuss. 15
   (c) Examine the challenges faced by a multicultural society in creating a harmonious balance between group rights and individual rights. 15
3. (a) Retributivism presents a deontological justification for capital punishment, whereas deterrence presents a consequential justification for it. Explain. 20
   (b) “The two antagonistic state structures – monarchy and democracy, both share some common features with dictatorship”. Do you agree with this view? Give reasons and justifications for your answer. 15
   (c) Negative liberty seems to embody the idea of ultimate personal freedom, whereas positive liberty enables individuals to achieve their full potential. Discuss. 15
4. (a) How has Ambedkar applied the concept of ‘Social Endosmosis’ for annihilation of castes. Evaluate its relevance for contemporary debates on identity and the politics of difference. 20
   (b) Explain the contrast between the monistic and pluralistic approaches to sovereignty. 15
   (c) Examine the relationship between democracy and development. Does democracy promote or hinder development? 15

Section ‘B’: Philosophy of Religion

5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each: 10×5=50
   (a) On what grounds does William James characterize mystical states as a genuine expression of religious experience? Elaborate. 10
   (b) Discuss Aquinas argument from the contingency of the world to prove the existence of God. 10
   (c) How does Paul Tillich’s idea of faith as ultimate concern address the relation between faith, doubt and reason? Evaluate. 10
   (d) Critically discuss the views of R. B. Braithwaite on the nature of religious language. 10
   (e) “If religion were a subject of reason alone, it would have lacked an experiential account.” Do you agree with this statement? Give reasons in support of your answer. 10
6. (a) In what sense does St. Augustine’s identification of all evil as either sin or as the punishment of sin succeed or fail in providing a coherent account of both moral and natural evil? Evaluate. 20
   (b) How does the issue of moral autonomy conflict with conception of religion as a source of morality? Critically discuss. 15
   (c) Does the idea of Religious Pluralism necessarily entail moral relativism? Critically discuss. 15
7. (a) Analyse R. M. Hare’s concept of ‘blik’ and assess whether it successfully defends the meaningfulness of religious language. 20
   (b) Discuss the difference between personalistic and impersonalistic notions of God in the context of devotion. 15
   (c) Can conflicting truth claims among religions be reconciled within the framework of religious pluralism? Critically discuss. 15
8. (a) Critically evaluate the shift in Gandhi’s view from ‘God is Truth’ to ‘Truth is God’, in the context of interrelation between religion and morality. 20
   (b) Explain and examine Madhvacharya’s arguments for the existence of God. 15
   (c) Present an account of criticisms against omniscience and omnipotence as attributes of God. 15

Related Philosophy Optional Resources

• Philosophy Optional Portal (Master Guide & Resources)
• Philosophy Optional Syllabus for UPSC Mains
• Philosophy Optional Topic-Wise PYQs (1990–2026)
• Philosophy Optional Booklist & Standard Reference Sources
• Philosophy Optional Preparation Strategy for 300+ Marks
• Philosophy Optional Success Rate in UPSC: Official Annual Report Data