Coinage of the Gupta Period

Coinage of the Gupta Period

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• The Gupta dynasty was founded by a feudal chief, Srigupta, around 260 CE. His son and successor, Ghatotkacha, never attained imperial status and issued no coinage.
  • His son, Chandragupta I, was the real founder of the family’s greatness — his matrimonial alliance with the Lichchhavis, whose princess Kumaradevi became his crowned queen, helped secure his rise to imperial status.
    • He assumed the imperial title maharajadhiraja, and inaugurated both the Gupta era and Gupta coinage.
• Gupta coins constitute the earliest indigenous coinage of India — regular in size and weight, and bearing the figure and name of the issuer.
  • For a few years, they showed some foreign influence, but soon became thoroughly national in art, motif, and execution.
  • In artistic merit, variety, and originality, the gold coinage of the Imperial Guptas has hardly any equal among ancient Indian coinages.
• The early gold coins of the Guptas closely resemble those of the later Kushanas.
  • The obverse type of the king standing and offering incense at an altar — copied from the Kushana prototype — is common in the earlier stages of Gupta coinage; the reverse, too, copied the Kushana type, showing Ardoksho seated on a high-backed throne.
  • Over time, however, the coins became completely Indianised: the Greek legend was replaced by the Brahmi legend, the peacock-topped Kushana cap was never adopted by a Gupta emperor, and Ardoksho was replaced by the goddess Lakshmi, seated on a lotus — though the Kushana motif of the king offering incense at the altar persisted for a few more decades.
• On Gupta coins, the king is depicted in a wide variety of attitudes and attributes.
  • He usually stands wielding a bow, battle-axe, or standard, sometimes accompanied by an umbrella-bearer; he is often shown locked in a deadly grapple with a lion, tiger, or rhinoceros.
  • At other times, he is shown riding a horse or elephant, playing the lute, or feeding a peacock — and beyond this multiplicity of types, each type itself shows a surprising number of varieties.
    • The Archer type was the most common type issued by Chandragupta II, with sub-varieties differing in where the king’s name is inscribed, whether the bow is held in the left or right hand, and whether the king’s face looks left or right.
• Gupta gold coins display superb craftsmanship and rank among the masterpieces of ancient Indian design.
  • The lion-slayer coins of Chandragupta II, depicting his slim, muscular, graceful form, have hardly any equal in their grace; the standing queens or goddesses on Gupta coins are similarly slim and lovely, gracefully holding a lotus, scattering gold coins, or feeding a peacock — all reflecting the refined artistic taste of the age. The tribhanga posture, in particular, is extremely charming.
  • The designs of the king-and-queen types of Chandragupta I and Kumaragupta I, the lyrist and Ashvamedha types of Samudragupta, and the chakravikrama and lion-slayer types of Kumaragupta I are all original, showing complete mastery of artistic technique.
    • On the reverse of most gold coins of Chandragupta II, a seated goddess appears — usually seated on a lotus, though in a few cases she occupies the high-backed throne derived from the Kushana prototype.
• Most successors of Skandagupta confined themselves to a single coin type — the Archer type — including Budhagupta, Narasimhagupta, Kumaragupta II, Vishnugupta, and Vainyagupta; only Prakashaditya, among the later Gupta rulers, chose the Horseman-Lion-Slayer type.
• John Allan published the Catalogue of the Coins of the Gupta Dynasties in 1914, offering a systematic study of Gupta coinage.
• The Guptas introduced several new artistic coin types, including:
  • Archer type
  • Battle-axe type
  • Tiger-slayer type
  • Lion-slayer type
  • Chhatra type
  • Horseman type
  • Elephant type
  • Most of these new types were original in conception, showing no sign of foreign influence, and were finely executed — the finest examples are seen in the Ashvamedha coins of Samudragupta and the lion-slayer type of Chandragupta II. However, the artistic quality began to decline from the time of Kumaragupta I.
• The legends on Gupta coins are composed in metrical verse and possess considerable poetic merit.
  • The legend “Vijitavanira Vanipatih Kumaragupta Divam Jayati” was introduced by Kumaragupta I, and was later copied by Skandagupta, Buddhagupta, Toramana, Isanavarman, Avanivarman, and Harsha.
• Allan held the view that coins bearing the figures of Chandragupta I and his queen Kumaradevi were commemorative medals struck by his son, Samudragupta — a view not accepted by Dr. A.S. Altekar.
• Several coin types are recorded for Samudragupta: the Tiger type, Lyrist type, Ashvamedha type, and Archer type.
  • A larger number of coin types survive for Chandragupta II: the Archer type, Couch type, Chhatra type, Lion-Slayer type, and Horseman type.
• Silver coins were first introduced by Chandragupta II, following his conquest of the Western Kshatrapas.
  • Their size, weight, and fabric closely resembled Kshatrapa coinage; originally, they were meant to circulate only in the provinces formerly under Kshatrapa rule.
  • These coins bore the Kshatrapa royal bust on the obverse, along with meaningless traces of a Greek legend; the year of issue was given in the Gupta era, and Garuda replaced the three-arched hill on the reverse.
• A very large number of coins survive for Kumaragupta I, in varieties including the archer, Ashvamedha, horseman, lion-slayer, tiger-slayer, and elephant-rider types.
  • Most of his coins resembled those of his predecessors, though the elephant-rider type was introduced by Kumaragupta I himself.
  • While Chandragupta II had issued silver coins only for the provinces formerly under the Western Satraps, Kumaragupta I extended silver coinage to the home provinces of the Gupta empire.
    • In these coins, the meaningless traces of Greek letters were discarded, the Kshatrapa bust discontinued, and the Garuda on the reverse replaced by a peacock. Skandagupta and Buddhagupta likewise continued this peacock-variety silver coinage.
• The Archer type coins of Skandagupta are mainly in gold, showing the king with a bow and a Garuda Dhvaja (standard); some bear the legend Kramaditya, his royal title.
  • Some coins of Skandagupta feature the Garuda, bull, and altar motifs — the altar motif appears specifically on his silver coins.

Chandragupta I

• Chandragupta I issued coins only in the king-and-queen type.
  • On the obverse: Chandragupta, usually shown with a nimbus (halo), stands facing left, wearing trousers, a head-dress (sometimes with a pearl border), and a close-fitting, tailed coat.
    • He wears ear-rings, armlets, and a necklace, holding in his left hand a crescent-topped standard adorned with fillets.
    • With his right hand, he offers a gift to Kumaradevi, who stands facing him to the right, wearing a sari, an upper garment, a close-fitting head-dress, a necklace, ear-rings, and armlets — her right hand rests on her waist, her left hanging down.
    • On some coins, a crescent appears between the king and queen. The legend reads “Chandragupta Sri Kumaradevi” or “Kumaradevisri.”
  • On the reverse, within a dotted border: a goddess, adorned in dress and ornaments, seated on a lion facing right or left, holding a noose in her right hand and a cornucopia in her left, with a circular dotted carpet beneath her feet. The legend reads “lichchhavayah.”
    • Sub-types are distinguished based on the placement of the legend, direction of the figures’ faces, and similar details.

Samudragupta

• Samudragupta issued a number of coin types over his long reign, of which the Standard type was the most popular — the Archer and Battle-axe types were further modifications of the Standard type, and together these three are recognised as military types.
  • To mark his victories on the battlefield, he performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice, leading to the issue of the Ashvamedha type.
  • Owing to his love of sport and music, he chose to commemorate these personal interests on some of his coins, resulting in the Tiger-slayer and Lyrist types.

Standard Type

• Obverse: a well-dressed king holds a standard in his left hand and offers incense with his right hand on an altar at his feet, behind which stands a standard decorated with a fillet and surmounted by a facing Garuda.
  • The vertical legend reads “Samudragupta,” and the circular legend reads “samara-sata-vitata-vijayo jita-ripurajito divam jayati” — “the invincible king, who has won victories on a hundred battlefields and conquered his enemies, wins heaven.”
• Reverse: a goddess (likely Lakshmi) seated facing forward on a throne, holding a cornucopia in her left hand and a noose in her right, feet resting on a circular mat. The legend reads “parakramah.”

Archer Type

• Obverse: the king stands facing left, holding a bow (string inward) in his left hand, while his right hand either holds an arrow or offers an oblation at an altar; a Garuda standard with fillet stands before him, with a crescent sometimes appearing between the king’s head and the banner.
  • The legend reads “Samudragupta,” with the circular legend “apratiratho vijitya kshitim sucharitair (or avaniso) divam jayati” — “having conquered the earth, the invincible one (or lord of the earth) wins heaven through meritorious deeds.”
• Reverse: a goddess (likely Lakshmi) seated, holding a cornucopia in her left hand and a noose in her right; the legend reads “apratirathah.”

Battle-Axe Type

• Obverse: the king stands facing left or right, typically with a sword at his belt, right hand resting on his waist, left hand holding a parasu (battle-axe); a dwarf attendant stands to one side, looking up at the king, with a crescent-topped banner between them.
  • The legend reads “kritantaparasurjayatyajitarajajetajitah” — “wielding the battle-axe of Kritanta, the unconquered king is victorious.”
• Reverse: the goddess Lakshmi, seated on a throne, holding a noose in her right hand and a cornucopia or lotus bud in her left, with her leg resting on a lotus. The legend reads “kritantaparasuh.”

Ashvamedha Type

• Obverse: an unsaddled horse (sometimes shown with a strap on its neck), facing left before a sacrificial post mounted on a pedestal, with a pennon flying above from the top of the post; the letter si appears beneath the horse.
  • The circular legend reads “rajadhirajah prithivimavitva (or vijitya) divam jayatyahrita-vajimedhah” — “the king of kings, having performed the vajimedha (Ashvamedha) sacrifice, wins heaven after protecting (or conquering) the earth.”
• Reverse: the crowned queen Dattadevi stands facing left on a pearl-bordered circular mat, holding a chouri (fly-whisk) over her right shoulder in her right hand, with a towel hanging from her left. The legend reads “asvamedhaparakramah.”

Tiger-Slayer Type

• Obverse: the king stands facing right, wearing a turban, short jacket, and close-fitting dhoti, trampling a tiger that attacks him and falls back as he shoots it with a bow held in his right hand, his left hand drawing the bowstring to his ear; a crescent-topped standard, adorned with a fillet, stands behind the tiger.
  • The circular legend reads “vyaghraparakramah” — “valiant as a tiger.”
• Reverse: the goddess Ganga stands on a makara, holding a lotus in her left hand, her right hand outstretched and empty, with a crescent-topped banner to her left. The legend reads “raja Samudraguptah” — “King Samudragupta.”

Lyrist Type

• Obverse: the king sits cross-legged, facing left, on a couch with a high, cushioned back, playing a lute (vina) resting on his lap; the letter si is inscribed beneath the couch.
  • The circular legend reads “maharajadhiraja sri Samudraguptah” — “Samudragupta, overlord of kings.”
• Reverse: the goddess Lakshmi, seated facing left on a stool, holding a noose in her right hand and a cornucopia in her left. The legend reads “Samudraguptah.”

Kacha

• The coins of Kacha were issued in a single type. Kacha is generally agreed to have been an early Gupta ruler, though the attribution of his coins remains a matter of scholarly dispute.
  • The early view, advocated by Prinsep and Thomas, identified Kacha with Ghatotkacha, father of Chandragupta I — but since Ghatotkacha was merely a feudatory, he could hardly have issued coins.
  • Other scholars identify Kacha with Samudragupta himself, or alternatively as his brother or son.
• In favour of identifying Kacha with Samudragupta: the average coin weight (about 116 grains), similarities in legend with Samudragupta’s Archer type, reverse depictions resembling the Tiger-slayer and Ashvamedha types, and the reverse legend “sarvarajochhetta” — an epithet otherwise given to Samudragupta.
  • These arguments, however, are not conclusive, and Kacha is generally considered distinct from Samudragupta.
• Altekar held that Kacha was a Gupta king who reigned after Samudragupta.
  • Obverse: the king stands facing right, holding a chakradhvaja (a standard surmounted by a wheel) in his left hand, offering incense on an altar with his right hand; a garudadhvaja sometimes appears before the king.
    • The legend reads “Kacha,” with the circular legend “Kacho gamavajitya divam karmabhiruttamairjayati” — “having conquered the earth, Kacha wins heaven through his excellent deeds.”
  • Reverse: a goddess (likely Lakshmi) stands on a circular carpet, holding a flower or noose in her left hand. The legend reads “sarvarajochhetta” — “exterminator of all kings.”

Chandragupta II

• Chandragupta II did not merely continue his father’s coin types — he modified them and introduced two entirely new ones.
  • He retained the Standard type and Archer type; transformed the Tiger-slayer type into the Lion-slayer type; and replaced the Lyrist type with the Couch type. He did not issue the Ashvamedha or Kritantaparasu (Battle-axe) types.
  • The Chakravikrama, Horseman, and Chhatra types were entirely new innovations.
• The epithet Vikrama — either alone or combined with other words such as ajita-, simha-, and chakra- — appears invariably on his coins.
  • Later in his reign, he introduced silver currency, primarily to serve the newly acquired regions of Gujarat and Kathiawar, and also issued several types in copper.

Archer Type

• Obverse: the king stands facing left, holding a bow in his left hand and an arrow in his right, palm generally turned downward; a Garuda standard, decorated with fillets, stands before him.
  • “Chandra” is written vertically, with the circular legend “deva sri maharajadhiraja sri Chandraguptah.”
• Reverse: the goddess is seated on a throne, feet on a circular mat or lotus; her left hand holds a cornucopia or lotus, and her right holds a pasa (noose), though sometimes empty or lowered. The legend reads “srivikramah.”

Lion-Slayer Type

• Obverse: the king stands facing left or right, usually shooting an arrow at a lion at point-blank range — bow in one hand, the other stretching the bowstring — with the king almost touching the lion.
  • The legend reads “narendrachandrah prathitarano rane jayatyajeyo bhuvi simhavikramah” — “the moon among kings, renowned for his warfare, valorous as a lion, victorious on the battlefield.”
  • Variations of this type include the lion-combat, lion-trampler, and lion-retreating sub-types.

Horseman Type

• Obverse: the king rides a fully caparisoned horse, facing right or left, sometimes bearing weapons such as a bow or sword, sometimes shown unarmed.
  • The legend reads “paramabhagavata maharajadhiraja sri Chandraguptah” — “the great devotee of Vishnu, the emperor Chandragupta.”
• Reverse: the goddess is seated on a stool, holding a noose in her right hand and a lotus in her left; the legend reads “ajitavikramah.”

Chhatra Type

• Obverse: the king stands facing left, offering oblations at an altar with his right hand, left hand resting on his sword, while a dwarf attendant behind him holds a state umbrella (chhatra) over him.
  • The legend reads either “maharajadhiraja sri Chandraguptah” (“king of kings, his majesty Chandragupta”) or “kshitimavajitya sucharitairadivam jayati Vikramadityah” (“having conquered the earth, Vikramaditya wins heaven through his meritorious deeds”).
• Reverse: the goddess holds a noose in her right hand and a lotus in her left; the legend reads “vikramadityah.”

Couch Type

• Obverse: the king sits on a high-backed couch, holding a flower in his raised right hand, his left hand resting on the edge of the couch.
  • The circular legend reads “devasri maharajadhiraja sri Chandraguptasya vikramadityasya” — “of the emperor, his majesty, Chandragupta Vikramaditya.” The word rupakrita is written beneath the couch.
• Reverse: the goddess is seated on a throne, holding a lotus in either hand; some varieties bear the legend “paramabhagavata.”

King and Queen on Couch Type

• Obverse: the king stands facing left, offering incense at an altar before him and holding a standard in his right hand; “Chandra” is written beneath his left arm, with the circular legend beginning “paramabhagavata.”
• Reverse: the king and queen sit on a couch, facing each other — the king offers the queen an object with a curved handle and a thick knob at the top, possibly a sinduradani (vermilion box), with a crescent depicted between them. The legend reads “srivikramah.”

Standard Type (Chandragupta II)

• Obverse: the king stands facing left, holding a fillet-adorned standard in his left hand and offering oblations at an altar with his right; a Garuda standard stands behind the altar.
  • “Chandragupta” appears alongside “vasudha vijitya tradava prithavasvarah” — “having conquered the globe, the lord of the earth wins heaven through meritorious deeds.”
• Reverse: the goddess is seated on a throne, facing forward, holding a noose in her outstretched right hand and a cornucopia in her left; the word “paramabhagavat” is inscribed.

Chakravikrama Type

• Obverse: the god Chakrapurusha stands facing right within a double-rimmed wheel, holding a mace (gada) in his left hand at his side, and offering three round objects held in his right palm to the king, who stands facing him — extending his right hand to receive the divine gift, his left hand resting on the hilt of a sword at his side.
• Reverse: within a dotted border, Lakshmi stands on a lotus, holding a long-stalked lotus that also bears a bud. The legend reads “chakravikrama.”
  • This scene is understood to depict the king receiving a divine favour directly from Chakrapurusha, who manifests himself before the king for this purpose — the prasada (gift), in the form of three round objects, is thought to symbolise the threefold royal power of prabhusakti, utsahasakti, and mantrasakti, which together constitute the kriyasakti of a king, since Chakrapurusha represents the kriyasakti of Vishnu.

Silver Coinage

• The silver coins of Chandragupta II are copies of the Kshatrapa silver issue current in western India.
  • On the obverse, the king’s bust closely follows the Kshatrapa prototype, though the Saka era is replaced by the Gupta era.
  • On the reverse, the wavy line at the bottom, the crescent, and the cluster of dots at the top are retained, but the three-arched hill at the centre is replaced by Garuda.
• These silver coins fall into two classes:
  • Class 1: the legend ends with “vikramaditya” and mentions the king’s religious persuasion rather than his family name — “paramabhagavata maharajadhiraja sri Chandragupta vikramaditya.”
  • Class 2: the legend ends with “vikramanka” and includes the family name — “sri guptakulasya maharajadhiraja sri Chandragupta vikramaditya.”

Copper Coinage

• The copper coinage of Chandragupta II is fairly original, appearing in several types: chhatra type, standing-king type, archer type, bust type, chakra type, and vase type.
  • Vase type: within a dotted border, “Chandra” surmounted by a crescent on the obverse; on the reverse, within a dotted border, a kalasa (vase) with flowers hanging from its edge.
  • Chakra type: the upper half bears a chakra (wheel), the lower half “Chandra,” on the obverse; the reverse shows Garuda in the upper half and “Gupta” in the lower half.
  • Standing-king type: the king stands facing left with his right hand raised; the reverse shows Garuda without human arms, with the legend “sri Chandraguptah.”
  • Bust type: a bust of the king holding a flower in his raised right hand on the obverse; the reverse shows Garuda with outstretched wings and the king’s name — Garuda is sometimes shown with human hands, and sometimes without.