Sangam Age: The Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas
The Sangam Age — spanning roughly 600 years, from c. 300 BCE to 300 CE — represents the earliest well-documented period of South Indian history, illuminated by Sangam literature, foreign accounts, and a growing body of archaeological and epigraphic evidence. Across this period, the three great dynasties of Tamilakam — the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas — along with numerous minor chieftains, developed a distinctive political culture marked by heroic kingship, poet-patron relationships, and a gradual absorption of northern political and religious ideas. For UPSC History Optional aspirants, understanding the political history, administrative institutions, and evolving bases of royal legitimacy in the Sangam Age is essential to the study of early South India.
Geographical and Political Background of Tamilakam
- The advent of the early historical period in South India is generally dated to the third century BCE, though recent archaeological data from the site of Kodumanal suggests the possibility of earlier beginnings, at least by the fourth century BCE.
- The early kingdoms of Tamilakam — the land between the Tirupati hills (Vengadam) and the southernmost tip of the peninsula — emerged in rice-growing areas of rich agricultural potential.
- The principality of the Cholas, in the lower Kaveri valley, corresponded roughly to the modern Tanjore and Trichinopoly districts of Tamil Nadu, with its capital at Uraiyur.
- The kingdom of the Pandyas, in the valleys of the Tamraparni and Vaigai, corresponded roughly to the modern Tirunelveli, Madurai, and Ramnad districts, and southern Travancore, with its capital at Madurai.
- The Cheras, on the Kerala coast, had their capital at Karuvur, also known as Vanji.
- All these regions participated in the flourishing trade networks of the time.
- The premier Chola port was Puhar (Kaveripumpattinam); the major Pandya port was Korkai; and the major ports of the Chera kingdom were Tondi and Muchiri.
Sources for the Political History of the Sangam Age
- The major sources of information on the political history of the time are laudatory poems, which often exaggerate the achievements and virtues of rulers.
- Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions corroborate the historicity, and offer rough dates, for some of the rulers mentioned in these texts.
The Cheras
- The Cheras ruled over parts of modern Kerala; their capital was Vanji, and their important seaports were Tondi and Musiri. They wore the palmyra flower as their garland.
- The Pugalur inscription, of the first century CE, refers to three generations of Chera rulers; the Padirruppattu likewise provides information on Chera kings.
- Perum Sorru Udhiyan Cheralathan, Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan, and Cheran Senguttuvan were the most famous rulers of this dynasty.
- Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to the second century CE; his younger brother was Elango Adigal, author of the Silappathigaram.
- Among his military achievements, his expedition to the Himalayas was especially remarkable, in the course of which he defeated many north Indian monarchs.
- Senguttuvan introduced the Pattini cult, the worship of Kannagi as the ideal wife, in Tamil Nadu — the stone for making Kannagi’s idol was brought by him following his Himalayan expedition.
- The consecration ceremony for this idol was attended by many princes, including Gajabahu II of Sri Lanka.
The Cholas
- The Chola kingdom of the Sangam period extended from the modern Tiruchi district to southern Andhra Pradesh; their capital was first located at Uraiyur, and later shifted to Puhar.
- Karikala was a famous king of the Sangam Cholas, whose early life and military conquests are portrayed in the Pattinappalai.
- In the Battle of Venni, he defeated a mighty confederacy consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas, and eleven minor chieftains — an event mentioned in many Sangam poems.
- Vahaipparandalai was another important battle fought by him, in which nine enemy chieftains submitted before him.
- Karikala’s military achievements made him overlord of the entire Tamil country.
- Trade and commerce flourished during his reign; he was responsible for reclaiming forest lands and bringing them under cultivation, adding to the prosperity of his people.
- He also built the Kallanai dam across the river Kaveri, and constructed many irrigation tanks.
The Pandyas
- The Pandyas ruled over present-day southern Tamil Nadu, with their capital at Madurai. The earliest kings of the Pandyan dynasty were Nediyon, Palyagasalai Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi, and Mudathirumaran.
- There were two Neduncheliyans:
- The first was known as Aryappadai Kadantha Neduncheliyan (“one who won victories over the Aryan forces”), who was responsible for the execution of Kovalan, for which Kannagi burnt the city of Madurai.
- The other was Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra Neduncheliyan (“he who won the battle at Talaiyalanganam”), praised by Nakkirar and Mangudi Maruthanar. He assumed this title after defeating his enemies at the Battle of Talaiyalanganam, in Tanjore district — a victory that gave him control over the entire Tamil country.
- The Maduraikkanji, written by Mangudi Maruthanar, describes the socio-economic condition of the Pandya country.
Minor Chieftains
- Minor chieftains played a significant role during the Sangam period. Among them, Pari, Kari, Ori, Nalli, Pegan, Ay, and Adiyaman were popular for their philanthropy and patronage of Tamil poets, and accordingly came to be known as the Kadai Yelu Vallalgal.
- Although subordinate to the Chera, Chola, and Pandya rulers, they remained powerful and popular within their respective regions.
End of the Sangam Age
- Towards the end of the third century CE, the Sangam period slowly began to decline. The Kalabhras occupied the Tamil country for about two and a half centuries thereafter, though little information survives about Kalabhra rule; Jainism and Buddhism became prominent during this period.
- The Pallavas, in northern Tamil Nadu, and the Pandyas, in southern Tamil Nadu, eventually drove the Kalabhras out of the Tamil country and established their own rule.
Political Development in the Sangam Age
- The Sangam poems present, for the first time, a sketch reflecting the evolution of the state system in South India.
- These works indicate a process of historical evolution in which tribes decreased in number, but persisted as well-established units alongside the king; the evidence thus suggests that the state, as an organised political structure, had come into existence — although it was not yet fully stable.
Kingship
- Monarchy was the form of government during the Sangam period; according to the Sangam classics, kingship descended by heredity, from father to son.
- Of the three crowned monarchies: the Cholas controlled the fully irrigated, fertile Kaveri (Cauvery) basin, with their capital at Uraiyur; the Pandyas ruled over the pastoral and littoral regions, with the capital at Madurai; and the Cheras held sway over the hilly country in the west, with Vanji (Karur) as their capital.
The Vendar (Crowned Kings)
- The Chera, Chola, and Pandya kings were together known as the vendar (crowned kings); these great kings possessed special insignia of royalty, such as the staff, drum, and umbrella.
- Each of the Sangam dynasties had its own royal emblem — the fish for the Pandyas, the tiger for the Cholas, and the bow for the Cheras.
- The “king” was called the ventan, head of both society and government.
- As head of society, he took the lead in every occasion of social importance, such as the festival of Indra, and the inauguration of dance performances; the king assumed important titles at his coronation, and was equated with the gods, so as to acquire divine sanctity.
- The imperial court, or avai, was attended by numerous chiefs and officials; the king also had recourse to advisers in the course of administration, frequently mentioned in the literature as surram — literally, “the men who always surrounded the king,” offering advice whenever needed.
- The king was assisted by a large body of officials, divided into five councils: ministers (amaichar), priests (anthanar), military commanders (senapathi), envoys (thuthar), and spies (orrar).
- The king was responsible for maintaining law and order in the state, and also looked after the welfare of his subjects, working hard for their good and frequently touring the country to set things in order.
Chieftains
- Chieftains were subordinate to the kings, and were divided into two categories — velir and non-velir; some of them were great patrons of letters, and the Sangam poets eulogised various chieftains, such as Ay, Andiran, and Pari, for their bravery and generosity.
- In the Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions found at several places in South India, kings are addressed as ko, and chieftains as ko or kon; princes carry the suffixes “ko” or “kon” in their names.
- The reference in the Pugalur inscription to an investiture ceremony for the heir apparent is significant, as is the mention of a subordinate ruler or functionary of the Pandya king in a Mangulam inscription.
- A kalatika (superintendent of pearls — an officer who supervised pearl fisheries) is mentioned in a second-century BCE Mangulam inscription; this person was also a member of a merchant guild.
- A first-century BCE inscription from Alagarmalai refers to the kanatikan (chief of scribes) — such inscriptions give valuable glimpses into the administrative organisation of the Pandyas.
- The later Sangam period witnessed greater consolidation of monarchical power, with a corresponding reduction of traditional chieftains to the position of royal officers; in the post-Sangam period, however, these royal officers grew stronger, while the centre gradually weakened.
Administration
- The policies of the king were checked and balanced through a system of councils. The Silappadikaram refers to two types of council — the Aimperunkulu and the Enperayam.
- The Aimperunkulu, or council of five, was the council of ministers; the Enperayam, or great assembly, consisted of eight members (government officers).
- Both assemblies functioned as administrative bodies, though their function was generally advisory in character — their advice, however, was rarely rejected by the king.
- Their most important function was judicial, though the Aimperunkulu appears to have held sole charge of this responsibility, as described in the Maduraikkanji.
- Every local unit was administered by a local assembly, following its own model of administration; the terms avai and manram are used for this unit in Sangam works.
- Such an assembly was commonly referred to as the arankuravaiyam, known for its just decisions — these can be regarded as the forerunner of our modern panchayat.
Military
- Wars in this period were frequent, fought not only for defence but also out of a desire to extend one’s territory, or to save the suffering people of neighbouring kingdoms from tyranny or misrule; sometimes wars even arose over matrimonial alliances.
- Such was the mental disposition of the people that nearly everyone trained for war, and besides the standing army maintained by kings, potential soldiers were found throughout the country, ready to join the royal force in times of need.
- Military administration was efficiently organised during the Sangam Age — each ruler maintained a regular army, along with their own kodimaram (tutelary tree).
- The king maintained all four kinds of armies mentioned in Sangam literature: the chariot, the elephant, the cavalry, and the infantry; there are also references to the navy of the Cheras. Sangam texts likewise mention army camps set up on the battlefield.
- The Tamil people held great respect for the warrior, and particularly for the hero who died in battle.
- Suffering a back-wound was considered highly disreputable — there are instances of kings who starved themselves to death after having suffered such a wound in battle. Hero stones were erected to commemorate those who died in war, and the provision of prisons indicates the coercive machinery available to the state.
- Internecine conflict was a regular feature of the politics of the age, with kings and chieftains frequently fighting one another, often by forming shifting alliances.
Influence of Northern Political Ideas
- Sangam polity was influenced by North Indian political ideas and institutions in several respects.
- Many rulers sought to trace their origin and association to deities such as Shiva and Vishnu, and to ancient sages; many kings are even said to have participated in the Mahabharata war, like their North Indian counterparts.
- The rulers of the Sangam Age were also patrons of art and literature, and performed yajnas (sacrifices).
New Bases of Royal Prestige and Legitimacy
- Though the most important basis for the legitimisation of political power in early historical South India was the eulogy of poets, Sangam poems also reflect the emergence of new bases of royal prestige and legitimacy.
Eulogy of Poets as a Basis of Legitimisation
- The relationship between poet and patron in ancient Tamilakam was a reciprocal one — the poet depended on his patron for material support and well-being, but the king, too, depended on the poet, since it was only the poet’s praise of his generosity and heroism that could secure him lasting fame.
- Conversely, a poet’s anger could prove costly for his patron, potentially leading to his ruin. In some poems, poor bards beseech their patrons for favours and gifts; others indicate that kings would give generously, even if it meant embarking on a looting expedition to do so.
- The relationship between ruler and poet was often close and intense, grounded in strong bonds of loyalty — even friendship.
New Bases of Legitimacy
- Sangam poems also reflect the emergence of new bases of royal prestige and legitimacy: the performance of Brahmanical sacrifices; establishing links with the northern epic tradition; the worship and patronage of certain deities; and the patronage of Jaina ascetics.
Vedic Sacrifices
- Several poems refer to a king’s performance of Vedic sacrifices. The Pandya ruler Mudukudumi bore the title Palshalai, meaning “one who has many halls” — presumably sacrificial halls.
- Certain chiefs claimed to have emerged from the sacrificial fire-pit of a northern sage, connecting themselves both with the sage Agastya and the god Vishnu; the chieftain Adigaiman is described as having been born into a family that honoured the gods through worship and sacrifice.
Cult of the Goddess Pattini
- Later tradition credits the Chera king Senguttuvan with playing an important role in establishing the cult of the goddess Pattini (Kannagi, deified as the epitome of the chaste wife).
Shiva Worship
- The Chola king Senganan is described in legend as devoted to Shiva, and as having fed the two warring armies on the eve of the Mahabharata war.
Patronage of Jainism
- Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions record the excavation of caves for Jaina monks and nuns by kings, chieftains, and many others.
- A second-century CE inscription at Pugalur records the construction of a rock shelter for a Jaina monk, on the occasion of the investiture ceremony of the Chera prince Ilankatunko.
- Two early second-century BCE Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions from Mangulam record gifts made to Jaina monks by a subordinate and a relative of the Pandya king Nedunjeliyan.
Conclusion
- The picture that emerges from the study of Sangam literature reflects a period that witnessed the conception of the state for the first time in South India — though this process was still in the course of crystallisation.
- Sangam polity was characterised by patriarchal and patrimonial systems, in which the administrative staff and various offices remained under the direct control of the rulers.
- Social inequality is evident in the dominance of the Brahmanas, though the acute class distinctions that appeared in later periods were still lacking in the Sangam Age.
- Agriculture formed the backbone of the Sangam economy, while trading activities — especially trade relations with the Mediterranean world — considerably enriched it; foreign elements also influenced the socio-economic and cultural life of the people.
- The beliefs and customs practised by the Sangam people suggest the complex nature of their religion — both animism and idol worship were followed during the Sangam Age. Many of the traditions of this period continued and survived into later times, and some persist even today.
