UPSC Prelims Research: Ancient History & Art and Culture 2022

Q. Consider the following pairs:

	Site of Ashoka’s major rock edicts		Location in the State of
1.	Dhauli	—	Odisha
2.	Erragudi	—	Andhra Pradesh
3.	Jaugada	—	Madhya Pradesh
4.	Kalsi	—	Karnataka

How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

(a) Only one pair
(b) Only two pairs
(c) Only three pairs
(d) All four pairs

Answer: (b) Only two pairs

Notes:

• The set of 14 major rock edicts (or portions thereof) occur at:
  • Kandahar (in Kandahar district, south Afghanistan) (only portions of rock edicts 12 and 13)
  • Shahbazgarhi (Peshawar district, North-West Frontier, Province,Pakistan)
  • Mansehra (Hazara district, NWFP, Pakistan)
  • Kalsi (Dehradun district, Uttarakhand)
  • Girnar (Junagadh district, Gujarat)
  • Mumbai–Sopara (originally at Sopara in Thane district, Maharashtra; now in the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai; only fragments of rock edicts 8 and 9)
  • Dhauli (Puri district, Orissa; separate rock edicts 1 and 2 replace major rock edicts 11–13)
  • Jaugada (Ganjam district, Orissa; separate rock edicts 1 and 2 replace major rock edicts 11-13)
  • Erragudi (Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh)
  • Sannati (Gulbarga district, Karnataka; portions of rock edicts 12 and 14 and separate rock edicts 1 and 2 were found on a granite slab in a medieval goddess temple.

Major Rock Edicts of Ashoka	Location/Place
Kandahar	Afghanistan
Yerragudi	Andhra Pradesh.
Girnar	Gujrat
Dhauli	Odisha
Jaugada	Odisha
Khalsi	Uttarakhand
Sopara	Maharashtra
Shahbazgarhi	Pakistan
Mansehra	Pakistan
Sannati	Karnataka

Must Read: Major & Minor Rock Edicts of Ashoka

Q. Which one of the following statements about Sangam literature in ancient South India is correct?

(a) Sangam poems are devoid of any reference to material culture.

(b) The social classification of Varna was known to Sangam poets.

(c) Sangam poems have no reference to warrior ethic.

(d) Sangam literature refers to magical forces as irrational.

Answer: (b) The social classification of Varna was known to Sangam poets.

Sangam Age:

• The era spanning from the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D. in South India, specifically the region south of the Krishna and Tungabhadra rivers, is denoted as the Sangam Period. The era spanning from the 3rd century B.C. to the 3rd century A.D. During the Sangam Age, South India was ruled by three dynasties – Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.
• Traditionally, three Sangams or assemblies are believed to have been convened one after the other. All the three Sangams took place at different places under the patronage of the Pandya kings of Madurai.
• According to Tamil legends, three sangams (gatherings of Tamil poets) were held in ancient South India, called Muchchangam.
  • The first Sangam is believed to have been held in Madurai. Deities and great saints were involved in this confluence. No literary texts of this Sangam are available.
  • The second Sangam was held at Kapatapuram, the only Tamil grammar text of this Sangam available in Tolkappiyam.
  • The third Sangam was also held in Madurai, left behind a few Tamil literary compositions that serve as valuable sources for understanding the historical context of the Sangam period.

Sangam Literature:

• The corpus of Sangam literature includes Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, Pattuppattu, Pathinenkilkanakku, and the two epics – Silappathigaram and Manimegalai.
• Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu were divided into two main groups – Aham (love) and Puram (valour).
• Pathinenkilkanakku contains eighteen works mostly dealing with ethics and morals. The most important among them is Tirukkural authored by Thiruvalluvar.
• Silappathigaram written by Elango Adigal and Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar also provides valuable information on the Sangam polity and society.

Sangam Society

• Tolkappiyam refers to the five- fold division of lands,
  1. Kurinji (hilly tracks)
  2. Mullai (pastoral)
  3. Marudam (agricultural)
  4. Neydal (coastal) and
  5. Palai (desert)
• The people living in these five divisions had their respective chief occupations as well as gods for worship.
  • Kurinji – chief deity was Murugan – chief occupation, hunting and honey collection.
  • Mullai – chief deity Mayon (Vishnu) – chief occupation, cattle-rearing and dealing with dairy products.
  • Marudam – chief deity Indira – chief occupation, agriculture.
  • Neydal – chief deity Varunan – chief occupation fishing and salt manufacturing.
  • Palai – chief deity Korravai – chief occupation robbery.
• The social classification of varna was known to Sangam poets. Tolkappiyam also refers to four castes namely arasar, anthanar, vanigar and vellalar.
  • The ruling class was called arasar.
  • Anthanars played a significant role in the Sangam polity and religion.
  • Vanigars carried on trade and commerce.
  • The vellalas were agriculturists.
• Other tribal groups like Parathavar, Panar, Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and Pulaiyar were also found in the Sangam society. Ancient primitive tribes like Thodas, Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in this period.
• The Brahmanas are also mentioned, some of them closely associated with the courts of kings and patronized by ruling elites. They are described as performing yajnas, including ones on the battlefield, to ensure victory. In the Padirrapattu, the sage Kapila advises kings that they should give important jobs such as those of advisers to Brahmanas.
• Sangam poems contain several incidental references to material culture, often as part of the poem’s setting or in similes and allusions. There are references to farming (rice and barley are mentioned), cattle rearing, and fishing.
• They also speak of the Yavanas (foreigners) coming in theri own vessels purchasing pepper with gold and supplying wine and women slaves to the natives. This trade is not known only from Latin and Greek writings but also from archaeological records.
• Aṇaṅku is a phenomenon of sacred power described in ancient Tamil literature such as the Sangam literature. This sacred magical forces were supposed to inhabit various objects, which eventually determined there association with the society.
• The class of warriors was an important element in society during the Sangam age. Captains of the army were invested with the title of ‘enadi’ at a formal ceremony. Civil and military officers were held under both the Cholas and the Pandyas by vellalas or rich peasants. The ruling class was called arasar and its members had marriage relations with the vellalas.

Women during the Sangam age:

• Women in the Sangam period appear to have been educated. This is testified by many poems contributed by women poets to the Sangam literature. Women are also described as engaged in various economic activities such as paddy plantation, cattle rearing, basket-making, spinning, etc.
• However, the cruel practice of Sati was also prevalent in Tamil society, and it was known as tippayadal. But it was not obligatory as there are references to widows present in society. However, their position was miserable as they were prohibited to decorate themselves or participate in any form of amusement.

Q. “Yogavasistha” was translated into Persian by Nizamuddin Panipati during the reign of:

(a) Akbar

(b) Humayun

(c) Shahjahan

(d) Aurangzeb

Answer: (a) Akbar

Notes:

• Yoga Vasistha (also known as Vasistha’s Yoga) is a Hindu spiritual text traditionally attributed to Valmiki. It recounts a discourse of the sage Vasistha to a young Prince Rama, during a period when the latter is in a dejected state.
• The contents of Vasistha’s teaching to Rama is associated with Advaita Vedanta, the illusory nature of the manifest world and the principle of non-duality. The book has been dated between the 11th and 14th century AD) and is generally regarded as one of the longest texts in Sanskrit (after the Mahabharata) and an important text of Yoga.
• Originally written in Sanskrit, the Yoga Vasistha has been translated into most Indian languages, and the stories are told to children in various forms. The number of Muslim scholars who collaborated with Hindu pandits in making Sanskrit works available was considerable.
• During the Moghul Dynasty the text was translated into Persian several times, as ordered by Akbar, Jahangir and Darah Shikuh. Nizam al-Din Panipati rendered the widely influential Yoga Vasistha into Persian late in the sixteenth century at the behest of the Mughal ruler Jahangir while he was still a crown prince. The translation, known as the Jug-Basisht, has since became popular in Persia among intellectuals interested in Indo-Persian culture.

Q. The world’s second tallest statue in sitting pose of Ramanuja was inaugurated by the Prime Minister of India at Hyderabad recently. Which one of the following statements correctly represents the teachings of Ramanuja?

(a) The best means of salvation was devotion.

(b) Vedas are eternal, self-existent and wholly authoritative.

(c) Logical arguments were essential means for the highest bliss

(d) Salvation was to be obtained through meditation.

Answer: (a) The best means of salvation was devotion.

Notes:

• 216-feet tall ‘Statue of Equality commemorating Sri Ramanujacharya was recently dedicated to the nation. The statue has been inaugurated at Hyderabad in the backdrop of celebrations of the ‘Festival of equality’, marking the 1000th birth anniversary of the Saint.
• The statue has been conceptualized by Sri Chinna Jeeyar Swami of Sri Ramanujacharya Ashram.
• It is made of ‘panchaloha’, a combination of five metals: gold, silver, copper, brass, and zinc and is among one of the tallest metallic statues in sitting position, in the world.

Sri Ramanujacharya:

• Born in Tamil Nadu in the 11th century, Ramanujacharya is revered as a Vedic philosopher and social reformer. He was deeply influenced by the Alvars (Vishnu worshippers) and according to him the best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.
• He propounded the doctrine of Vishishtadvaita or qualified oneness.
• He spoke of universal salvation through devotion to God, compassion, humility, equality, and mutual respect, which is known as Sri Vaishnavam Sampradaya.
• He is considered to be the inspiration for Bhakti poets like Annamacharya, Ramdas, Thyagaraja, Kabir, and Meerabai.

Also Read: Vedanta School of Indian Philosophy

Q. The Prime Minister recently inaugurated the new Circuit House near Somnath Temple at Veraval. Which of the following statements are correct regarding Somnath Temple?

1. Somnath Temple is one of the Jyotirlinga shrines.
2. A description of Somnath Temple was given by Al-Biruni.
3. Pran Pratishtha of Somnath Temple (installation of the present day temple) was done by President S. Radhakrishnan.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (a) 1 and 2 only

Notes:

• Somnath is a magnificent temple the location of Somanatha was earlier referred to as Prathasa Pattana, a well known Tirtha or place of pilgrimage in Saurashtra. It is situated on the west coast of Kathiawar and is at present under Junagadh. It was associated with the nearby confluence of three rivers and it adjoined the port of Veraval. One of the 12 holy Jyotirlingas of Lord Shiva is in Jyotirlinga here in Somnath.
• Somnath mean “the protector of moon god”. It is known as the “shrine external” as although the temple has been destroyed six times it has been rebuilt every single time. Somnath is also mentioned in Rigveda. This temple of Somnath has been very attractive in front of many destructive foreign invaders who want to lure and convert to the temple glory. Mahmud began series of seventeen invasions into northwestern India at the end of the 10th century his 16th expedition was the plunder of Somnath temple (dedicated to Shiva) in 1025 A.D.
• Mahmud of Ghazni plundered the Somanath temple and there are multiple versions of the event in Turko-Persian sources. Al-Beruni writes that the temple was built of stone and ‘constructed about 100 years prior to Mahmud’s attack (which would date it to the 10th century) that it was set in a fortress surrounded by the sea on 3 sides – presumably; its wealth had to be guarded. Al-Beruni states that the upper part of the icon was broken at the orders of Mahmud and parts of it were taken back as look to Ghazni and placed so that people would walk on it. Mahmud’s raids caused economic devastation and the Turks were hated among the people who suffered because of these raids.
• India’s Iron Man and first Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel on November 13, 1947 promised to rebuild the temple. Today’s Somnath Temple is built on its original place in seventh place. In 1951, India’s first President Dr. Rajendra Prasad proposed to purify Jyotirling, he said, “This temple of Somnath is a symbol of victory over construction on destruction”. He performed the Pran prathistha of the Somnath Mandir.
• The temple is built under Shri Somnath Trust and this trust is now monitoring the temple. Sardar Patel was the first chairman of this trust.

Q. With reference to Indian history, consider the following texts:

1. Nettipakarana
2. Parishishtaparvan
3. Avadanashataka
4. Trishashtilakshana Mahapurana

Which of the above are Jaina texts?

(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 4

Answer: (b) 2 and 4 only

Notes:

• The Nettipakarana:
  • It is a Buddhist scripture. Nettipakarana is a guide to help those who already understand the teaching present it to others. The Netti methods were taught by the Buddha’s disciple Kaccana (also Katyayana or Kaccayana).
  • Nettipakarana is a mythological Buddhist scripture sometimes included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of Theravada Buddhism.
  • It is divided into two divisions:
    • Sangahavara
    • Vibhagavara
• Avadana texts:
  • The emergences of the Avadana may have been compiled between second Century A.D to the 11th Century A.D. The earlier product of Avadana texts like Avadana-sataka, Divyavadana etc., which are of Hinayanic character and the later Avadanas like Suvarnavarnavadana, Kalpadrumavadanamala, Vratavadanamala are earmarked as Mahayanic in character. Avadanas are non canonical Buddhist texts about previous lives and karma, example Divyavadana (4th century) and Avadanashataka (2nd century) written in sanskrit. It deal with stories and tales related to Buddha.
• The Parishishtaparvan:
  • Also known as the Sthaviravalicharitra, is a 12th-century Sanskrit mahakavya by Hemachandra which details the histories of the earliest Jain teachers.
• Mahapurana or Trishashthilkshana:
  • Mahapurana is a major Jain text composed largely by “Acharya” Jinasena during the rule of Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarsha and completed by his pupil Gunabhadra in the 9th century CE.
    • Mahapurana consists of two parts. The first part is Ādi purā a written by “Acharya” Jinasena. The second part is Uttarapurana which is the section composed by Gunabhadra.

Q. With reference to Indian history, consider the following pairs:

	Historical person		Known as
1.	Aryadeva	—	Jaina scholar
2.	Dignaga	—	Buddhist scholar
3.	Nathamuni	—	Vaishnava scholar

How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

(a) None of the pairs
(b) Only one pair
(c) Only two pairs
(d) All three pairs

Answer: (c) Only two pairs

Notes:

• Āryadeva (3rd century), was a Mahayana Buddhist monk, a disciple of Nagarjuna and a Madhyamaka philosopher, is a central figure in the development of early Indian Madhyamaka philosophy.
• Dignaga was the early 6th century Indian Buddhist Monk and was also the founder of Indian logic, Hetu Vidya. He was born in Simhavakta near Kanchipuram.
• Sri Ranganathamuni, popularly known as Sriman Nathamuni, was a Vaishnava theologian who
  collected and compiled the Nalayira Divya Prabandham. Considered the first of Sri Vaishnava
  āchāryās, Nathamuni is also the author of Yogarahasya, and Nyāyatattva.

Buddhist Scholars:

Dignaga (480 AD-540 AD):

• Dignaga’s work laid the groundwork for the development of deductive logic in India and created the first system of Buddhist logic and epistemology.
• His Philosophy: 
  • Pratyaksha (awareness to acquire information) 
  • Anumana (type of cognition to be aware of general attributes)
  • Apohavada and language: (interpretation of conventional and symbolic signs to be conventional instances of inference)
• His works: 
  • Pramana-samuccaya (perception, language and inference)
  • Abhidharmakosa-marma-Pradip (Abhidharmakosha’s Summary).
  • Nyaya-mukha: (Introduction to logic)
  • A summary of the Mahayana Astasahasrika-prajnaparamita sutra 

Dharmakirti:

• Dharmakirti is associated with the Yogacara and Sautrantika schools.
• He was one of the primary theorists of Buddhist atomism.
• His philosophy:
  • Epistemology:  (instruments of knowledge, i.e., perception and inference)
  • Metaphysics: (real is only the momentarily existing particulars, and any universal is unreal and a fiction)
• His works include Sambandhaparikshavrtti, Pramanaviniscaya, Pramavarttika-karaka.  

Chandrakirti (600 CE-650 CE):

• Chandrakirti was a Buddhist scholar of Madhyamaka school.
• His philosophy:
  • Two truths
  • The nature of conventional truth
  • Prasanga and reasoning
  • Buddhahood
• His works include Mulamadhyamaka-vrtti-prasannapada, Madhyamakavatara, Yuktisasthika-vrtti. 

Q. According to Kautilya’s Arthashastra, which of the following are correct?

1. A person could be a slave as a result of a judicial punishment.
2. If a female slave bore her master a son, she was legally free.
3. If a son born to a female slave was fathered by her master, the son was entitled to the legal status of the master’s son.

Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3

Notes:

• According to Kautilya’s Arthashastra, a person can be enslaved for fines of court decree which Kautilya’s Arthashastra is defined as “Dandapranita”. There are several types of enslavement that is given in Arthashastra. One of the prime methods of enslavement was to have a person as a slave as a result of judicial punishment for some sort of criminal demeanor.
• According to Kautilya’s Arthashastra, children born to a slave and master when a slave gives birth to a child, both the mother and child shall be recognized as free and were no longer considered to be slaves.
• If a son born to a female slave was fathered by her master, the son was entitled to the legal status of the master’s son.

Slavery in Arthashastra:

• The Arthashastra states that a man could be a slave either by birth, by voluntarily selling himself, by being captured in war, or as a result of a judicial punishment.
• Slavery was a recognized institution and the legal relationship between master and slave was clearly defined e.g. if a female slave bore her master a son, not only was she legally free but the child was entitled to the legal status of the master’s son.
• Arthashastra gives a detailed account of the institution of slavery in a separate chapter ‘Dasa Kalpa’.
  Although he has supported the institution by suggesting it is a necessary element of society, he
  provides certain rights to enable them to achieve emancipation.
• According to Kautilya, there were nine types of slaves:
  • A person captured in war was enslaved for a short period of time. As these were mostly Aryas, they could be freed by paying half the price and attain Arya-hood again.
  • There were slaves who accepted the slave status for a living. Kautilya mentiones them as ‘Udaradasa’ (slave for stomach i.e. due to hunger)
  • There were slaves who were born slaves (Grihjatah). These were born in the house of the masters to the female slaves.
  • Bought slaves are also mentioned in the Arthashastra and are called ‘Krita’ who could never attain freedom. They were mostly non-Aryans (Mlechcha)
  • Slaves received in gifts are also mentioned as Labdhah.
  • Slaves had been treated as chattels and they could be inherited from father to son. They are described as ‘Daya-agatah.
  • A person enslaved because of judicial punishment has been mentioned as Dandapraneet. This kind of slavery was of a fixed period as Dandapraneet could be freed after serving the sentence.
  • Kautilya also described the slaves who enslaved themselves voluntarily by selling themselves. They could attain freedom after some time and their children could be free even during their term of slavery
  • Mortgaged slaves are described as ‘Ahitaka’.