The term Rajput begins to appear in historical records from the 6th century AD onwards.
The word is derived from “Rajaputra”, meaning the son of a ruler or king.
From this period, several new ruling families started identifying themselves as Rajputs.
The exact origin of the Rajputs is controversial and has been explained through different schools of thought, based on social, political and historical interpretations.
Tribal Origin Theory (V.A. Smith)
This theory was put forward by V.A. Smith.
According to this view:
Several tribal and aboriginal communities gradually transformed into Rajputs after acquiring political power.
Important examples given:
Gonds became Chandelas
Bhars became Rathores
Kharvars became Gahadwals
It is supported by the idea that:
The Dharmashastras recognize the possibility of lower castes being elevated to higher castes.
This type of social elevation is not a one-time event but a continuous historical process.
Thus, some tribal groups, after gaining land and power, gradually adopted Kshatriya identity and became Rajputs.
Origin from Newly Powerful Local Groups
(Kshatriyisation and Rajputisation)
After the decline of large empires, many local groups such as tribal chiefs, warrior lineages and regional rulers gained political power.
These newly powerful groups:
Claimed Kshatriya status
Prepared false or fabricated genealogies to show descent from ancient Kshatriya dynasties
In this process:
Brahmanas played a major role by:
Preparing family lineages
Performing rituals
Granting social legitimacy to the ruling families
Two terms are used for this social transformation:
Kshatriyisation – Term used by Hermann Kulke
Rajputisation – Term used by H. Sinha
Through this process, many ruling families entered the Rajput social order.
Foreign Origin Theory of the Rajputs
According to this theory, the Rajputs were descendants of foreign races that entered India at different times.
These foreign groups included:
Sakas
Kushanas
Hunas
This theory was supported by:
Dr. V.A. Smith
Col. James Todd
William Crooke
Ishwari Prasad
D. R. Bhandarkar
The main argument given by James Todd was that:
The Rajputs worshipped fire
Fire was the chief deity of the Sakas and Hunas
Therefore, Rajputs were considered to be of foreign origin
The absorption of foreigners into Hindu society was not a new process at the time when Rajputs emerged.
There are historical examples of:
Matrimonial alliances between Indians and foreigners
A Satavahana prince married the daughter of Rudradaman, showing social integration
Mixed Origin Theory (Dr. D. P. Chatterjee)
This theory was formulated by Dr. D. P. Chatterjee.
According to this view:
The Rajputs were a mixed race
Some were descendants of the Aryans
Others were descendants of foreign races like the Hunas and Sakas
This theory explains that:
The Rajputs emerged through a combination of native and foreign elements
Their origin cannot be traced to a single source
Kshatriya Theory of Origin (G. S. Ojha)
This theory was given by Gauri Shankar Hirachand Ojha.
According to him:
The Rajputs were not of foreign origin
They were the descendants of the ancient Kshatriyas
They belonged to the Solar and Lunar dynasties
His arguments include:
Fire worship was a tradition of the Aryans, not foreigners alone
The tradition of fire worship among Rajputs does not prove foreign origin
Bardic literature supports this view
The term Rajaputra is mentioned in the Puranas
Banabhatta uses the term Rajaputra for a high-born Kshatriya
However, this theory has been:
Rejected by most modern historians on historical grounds
Due to lack of firm historical and archaeological evidence
Agnikula Theory
This theory is based on late medieval legends such as:
The Prithviraj Raso of Chand Bardai
According to this theory:
The Rajputs were produced from a sacrificial fire-pit (Agnikunda)
The sacrifice was performed by Rishi Vashistha
The place of the sacrifice was Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu
Four Rajput clans originated from the Agnikunda:
Chauhans
Chalukyas
Parmaras
Pratiharas
This theory has been interpreted by some historians as:
A symbolic reference to purification rites
Performed to remove the impurity of foreigners
And absorb them into the Hindu social order
Overall View on the Origin of the Rajputs
The diversity in the customs, beliefs, religious practices and traditions of the Rajputs suggests that:
Their origin was not uniform
Examples:
Rajputs who worship the Sun may be regarded as having foreign roots
Rajputs who worship the serpent (Naga) are likely descended from the aboriginal tribes of India
Therefore, the Rajputs appear to have:
Emerged through tribal transformation
Foreign assimilation
Social elevation
And political rise over a long historical process
The Evolution of Rajput Polity
The Arab invasion of Sind and Multan in 712–13 A.D. marked an important turning point in the political history of western India.
Within the next twenty-five years, the Arabs:
Advanced into Marwar, Malwa and Broach
Issued serious threats to several other parts of India
These continuous raids:
Disrupted the old political order
Weakened existing powers
Led to significant changes in the political map of Western India and the Deccan
In this situation of political instability:
Powers like the Rashtrakutas
And several clans later known as Rajputs emerged as important political forces
Many of these Rajput clans:
Were not known in earlier times
Began to play an important political role from about the eighth century onwards
Lineages such as the Paramaras and the Chahamanas:
Had obscure beginnings
Passed through many political struggles and uncertainties
Gradually rose to prominence during the inter-state conflicts among major powers like:
Gurjara Pratiharas
Rashtrakutas
Although the rise of the Rajputs seems accidental at first view:
A closer study of early political developments shows that:
Their emergence was not sudden
It occurred within the existing hierarchical political structure
Their rise should therefore be understood as:
A gradual historical process
Rather than a sudden political transformation
The political developments of medieval Western India show that:
Political authority was distributed through:
A network of ruling lineages
This operated within the framework of:
Monarchical form of polity
Thus, the rise of the Rajput clans was linked with:
The broader process of lineage-based political organization
Proliferation of Rajput Clans
The main sources for tracing the proliferation of Rajput clans are the bardic chronicles.
These sources show that:
Once a ruling clan was established, it often divided into several branches
A clear example is provided by the Paramara dynasty:
Dharanivaraha of the Paramaras:
Occupied Marwar
Divided it among his nine brothers
As a result:
Apart from the Paramaras of Malwa
At least four other Paramara lines came to rule in:
Abu
Bhinmal
Jalor
Vagada
A similar process can be seen in the Chahamana clan:
Apart from the Chahamanas of Broach
Other branches ruled in:
Pratabgarh
Nadol
Shakambhari
Satyapura
Abu
The Chapas were another important Rajput clan of the early medieval period:
They ruled over principalities such as:
Bhillamala
Vadhiar
The Guhilas:
Established their rule over:
Udaipur
Mewar
Along with these major clans:
Several minor Rajput clans also emerged, reflecting the widespread expansion of Rajput power
Formation of Lineage Power
The formation and consolidation of lineage power:
Did not take place in a uniform manner
Different clans followed different historical paths
One of the main indicators of the formation of lineage power was:
Colonization of new areas
This process is clearly visible in:
The expansion in the number of settlements
Colonization was often the result of:
Annexation of new territories
Through organised military strength
The territorial expansion of Western Indian powers:
Was achieved in many regions at the cost of tribal settlements
For example:
The Mandor Pratihara ruler Kakkaka:
Is said to have resettled a region
Which earlier had a dangerous reputation due to the presence of the Abhiras
There are several examples of:
The suppression of tribal populations
Such as the:
Shabaras
Bhillas
Pulindas in Western and Central India
The bardic tradition also indicates that:
The Guhila kingdoms of southern Rajasthan
Succeeded the earlier tribal chiefdoms of the Bhils
Political authority could also be established by:
Replacing one ruling lineage with another
For example:
In Jalor:
Kirtipala, a Chahamana Rajput:
Attacked the Paramaras of Jalor
Made Jalor the capital of his new kingdom
Similarly:
The Chahamana line of Broach:
Was established by:
Replacing the Gurjaras of Broach
Thus, the formation of lineage power:
Took place through:
Colonization
Military conquest
Replacement of ruling families
These processes were:
Interconnected
Not isolated from one another
Process of Rising in Social Status
The political history of Western India shows that:
A large ethnic group of a region
Could successfully compete for political authority
From among these groups:
Certain families:
Achieved political dominance
Emerged as ruling lineages
These ruling families:
Gradually rose in the social hierarchy
Especially under:
Favourable political circumstances
Successful control over land and military resources
Consolidation of Lineage Power
One of the most important means of consolidation was:
Distribution of land among members of the ruling lineage
Land assignments included:
Grasa
Grasabhumil
Bhukti
These land grants:
Were held under the authority of the King
Helped in:
Maintaining loyalty
Strengthening control over territory
Another major method of consolidation was:
The large-scale construction of fortresses
Fortresses:
Served defensive purposes
Acted as centres of control over surrounding rural areas
Strengthened the political authority of ruling families
The marriage network among ruling clans was another important factor:
These alliances created:
Inter-clan relationships
Long-term political cooperation
Such marriage relations had direct political implications because:
Most of these families were ruling Rajput clans
Important examples include:
Paramara–Rashtrakuta matrimonial relations
Chahamana–Paramara matrimonial relations
Nature and Structure of Polity:
Political Instability:
Mobilization of military strength could not only displace a ruling lineage but also create new locus and network of power.
e.g. the Vagada branch of the main line of the Paramaras. This Vagada branch continued to be a loyal feudatary line for centuries till Chamundaraja; one of Its rulers defied the Paramaras of Malwa and became independent in the second half of the eleventh century. The Vagada was lost to the kingdom of Malwa in the beginning of the twelfth century. After 3 decades, the Paramara family of Vagada branch was dethroned by by a different geneology.
This shows the frequent change of ruling class in the regions.
Bureaucratic Structure:
It is hardly likely that the early medieval powers such as the Chaulukyas, Paramaras and Chahamanas could give stable government to the country without a powerful bureaucracy in the structure of their polities.
We come across the names of a number, of officers who evidently assisted in the transaction of’ the affairs of the state.
Lekhapaddhati furnishes the names of karanas (departments) of the government. It is supposed to be applicable to the Chaulukya government as the largest number of its documents are datable to the Chaulukya poriod in the history of Gujarat. A few karanas mentioned in the work also figure in the Chaulukya records.
Sri-Karana (Chief secretariat). for instance, is a familiar term in their inscriptions.
Also known from their records are Vyaya Karana or the accounts department, Vyapara-Karana or the department in charge of general supervision of trade and the collection of import and export duties and mandapika-karna or the secretariat in charge of the collection of taxes.
Such karanas were headed by ministers known by the term mahamatyas.
Besides the mahamatyas, there were other officers called mahamantrins, mantrins and sachivas.
The information about their status is very meagre as they are only casually mentioned in only a few inscriptions.
Of the more frequently mentioned officers in early medieval Western India was mahasandhivigrahika who was a minister of peace and war and whose duties also included that of a conveyor of a grant.
Another officer mentioned was mahakshapatalika or the head of accounts or record office.
He kept a full account of the income of the statc and also of the expenditure.
Mahamantrin or mahapradhana, literally meaning a chief minister, was an official of great iniportance.
He held charge of the royal seal and exercised general supervision over all departments.
Dandanayaka or senapati was also an important official, who was primarily a military officer.
baladhipas were officers in charge of the military stationed in outposts and towns were placed under him.
The whole administration was controlled by a department. the Baladhikarana, stationed at the capital.
Lineage State and Feudal Polity
From the Gupta period onwards there was a marked inter-relatedness of polities, which was the result of the horizontal spread of state society.
It was not just consolidation of the lineage power was linked with the factor of landholding. The exercise of Important governmental functions was gradually being linked up with landholding. e.g.
Under the rule of the Gurjara Pratiharas we find references to estates held by chiefs of the Chahamana, Guhila and Chalukya clans.
The Kalvan plates of Yashovarman (of the time of the Paramara King Bhojadeva) mentions a chief who had acquired a royal charter of 84 villages, obviously from his overlord.
In these Rajput states, the phenomenon of different levels of power cuts across all major political structures reflects the feudal polity.
What is broadly labelled as samanta system was not however, a uniform category. It included a wide range of status all of which corresponded to the landed aristocracy of the period.
The Kingdoms of all the major powers included the territories which were under the control of the feudatories who were known under the generic title of mandalika, but sometimes styled themselves as maharajadhiraja, mahamandalesvara, mahamandalikas, mahasamantas and samantas.
The most important of the feudatory princes of the Chaulukyas were the Paramaras of Abu and the Chahamanas of Jalor.
Similarly, a considerable portion of the Chahamana state was held by landed intermediaries variously known as thakkuras, ranakas, and bhoktas, on the condition that they supplied certain quotas of soldiers when required by the overlord.
The categories of feudatory chiefs:
who were rewarded by the King with land in consideration of their valuable services;
who had built up their ownprincipalities during the period of aggrandisement and acknowledged the supremacy of the premier line. e.g. the Pararnaras of Vagada, and the Paramaras of Kiradu.
who had carved out their principalities by the force of their own arms in defiance of the central authority during the difficult days of overlord.
who were defeated and forced to accept the suzerainty of the Paramaras and were given the status of a vassal.
Big feudatory chiefs enjoyed large amount of internal autonomy.
They could create their own sub-feudatories and appoint their own officers.
It was possible for feudatory chiefs also to distribute their lands among their dependents.
The thakkuras served the feudatory chiefs in almost all the feudatory states under the Paramaras.
The feudatories could also assign taxes, alienate villages and exempt certain people from taxation.
This practice of granting land and its associated fiscal and administrative rights is called sub-infeudation.
Thus, in course of time the samanta system encompassed a proliferating range of designations and assumed the characteristics of a hierarchical political formation represented by the ranks such as ranaka, rauta, thakkura, samanta, mahasamanta, etc.
The incidence of grants to state officials vary from one region to another.
To illustrate, while we hear about half a dozen Paramara official ranks, only a few of them are known to have received land grants.
But very large terrritories were granted to vassals and high officers under the Chaulukyas of Gujarat. Chaulukya copperplates of 12th-13th centuries and their comparison with the data of the Lekhapaddhati help us in stressing that vassals and high officers gradually merged into one another.
Indeed some Chandella inscriptions of the late twelfth and early thirteenth century specifically enjoin the feudatories, royal officials, forest officials. constables, etc. to give up-their perquisites in the villages transferred as gifts.
There are also references to resumption of such rights.
The feudatories owed fiscal and military obligations to the overlord. Generally the authority of the feudatories was derivative, dependent on the fulfilment of certain conditions: e.g.
supplying the overlord with certain quotas of soldiers in time of need. e.g. the paramaras of Vagada fought in the cause of the imperial Paramaras of Malwa
However, the feudatory chiefs were eager to free themselves whenever there was an opportunity. In this case the relation between the suzerain and vassal rested absolutely on, the force one could use.
For example. the Guhilas of Mewar accepted the Paramara overlordship when they were defeated by Vakapati-11 but tried to re-establish their lost position during the period of confusion which followed the death of Bhoja-I.
The most important duty of a feudatory prince was to help his suzerain against the enemy.
Sometimes the feudatories conquered new territories for the suzerain or brought another prince under the later’s vassalage.
An inscription seems to imply that at the accession of a new King the feudatories swore loyalty to their new overlord who confirmed them in their possession.
Feudatories are also said to have paid tribute to their overlord both in cash and kind.
However, there was no hard and fast rule regarding the obligations of the feudatory chiefs of different categories.
The general relations between the overlord and the feudatory depended upon the circumstances and relative strength of the feudatory vis-a-vis his suzerain.
Often the strength of the feudatory bonds depended upon the personality of the overlord.
Overlords who went on expeditions to distant lands had to entrust some of their capable generals with the administration of certain territories as feudatory chiefs.
Often samantas had no permanent bonds and were prepared to transfer their allegiance to a powerful invader in return for greater privileges.
To summaries the prominentfeatures of polity:
A strong feudal character:
Period of feudal consolidation.
Overlord – subordinate relationship was an essential feature.
Chain of personal allegiance which bound retainers to chief, tenants to lords, barons, to Kings.
Hierarchical political structure represented by various ranks.
The central feature of polity being fiefs or estates:
administrative structure based on the control and possession of land,
Special pattern of land distribution.
Land holding was a status symbol.
Consolidation of political status through land holding. Fiefs, estates consolidated the position of individuals.
These land holdings emerged as centres of local control and foci of power and on this was based the existence of local ruling elites.
Greater degree of autonomy in political system
At lower level, the autonomy of various degree in administration, fiscal system and administration of justice and this autonomy was to give birth to local politics and this integrated into larger state politics.
This was a hallmark of political system of the Rajputs.
Under feudal system the feudal lord fulfilled military & fiscal obligations. Infact feudal authority rested on fulfillment of these obligations.
They being provided military assistance paid tributes in cash and kind to king.
Centralization tended to be very weak:
This overlord – subordinate relationship being the core of the political system and the relative strength of the feudatory vis-a vis the suzerain was a factor in determining the stability of the system.
wielding of vast-administrative and financial powers by vassals and offten to the, extent of sub-infeudation => hierarchy of landed intermediaries,
fragmentation of political authority,
Application of force and ability to overawe / overpower samantas/ Mutual distrust and acrimony:
This was important in maintaining this relationship because the tendency towards autonomy was always powerful.
This disrupted political stability. Centralised control weakened.
The kingship concept:
The kingship concept was important i.e. concept of all powertul king, through in a limited sense. A number of authorities vested in the king.
This does not mean centralized control but various authorities vested in him.
Existence of council of ministers:
Existence of council of ministers, their role being advisory.
Military being feudal in character:
Military was feudal in character. King’s standing army was greatly supplemented by the army of the feudal lords.
Military aid or assistence being one of the two main obligations of the feudatories.
Old military organisation and strategy
Existence of bureaucracy:
References show that bureaucracy was well organised and elaborate but this is not a historical truth.
The designation of the officials continued as before like Akshapatalika Mahapratihara, Mahasandhivigrahik.
Bureacracy did not play any significence role because of the polity being feudal.
Devolution of powers. Feudal lords enjoyed considerable powers.
The revenue system:
The revenue system was mainly based on land tax.
Certain levies on trade and commerce too were collected.
Revenue system was under great pressure because of feudal economy.
Centralised revenue system lost relevance.
It rested on feudal tribute.
oppression end immobility of peasants
restricted use of metal money
Rajput’s Society and Culture:
The Rajput society was feudal in its organizational set up. It was split up into various clans, each under one or more hereditary ruling houses. They showed great loyalty, and implicit obedience to their chieftains.
The main profession of the Rajputs was fighting in defence of his clan and its chief.
The village communities in Rajput societies were governed by their panchayats and enjoyed considerable autonomy in their internal affairs.
There was no written law of the land; the Rajput states were run on local customs and traditions. The feudal administrative set up was usually not very elaborate; in most cases, it was not efficient or stable either.
The Rajputs were known for their undaunted courage and chivalry. They were honest, generous and hospitable and kept their word. They were somewhat haughty and emotional.
They were simple, outspoken and straight forward people who rejected outright the Machiavellian principles of deceit and treachery in war.
They were sometimes generous to a fault in their treatment of the vanquished foe.
The Rajputs were freedom-loving people with a keen sense of honor and self-respect. They constituted, in fact, the ‘sword-arm of Hindustan‘.
They were great warriors who took to fighting as a sport and smilingly laid down their lives for the honor of their family, clan or the regional leader.
The Rajput women enjoyed considerable freedom and respect in the society.
They were known for their chastity and devotion to their husbands.
There was nopurdahsystem among them.
They had some freedom in the selection of their husbands too; swayamvar was in vogue among the princesses for this purpose.
Rigid caste system, sati, child marriage and ban of widow remarriage were very common among the Rajputs.
The custom of sati was prevalent though not insisted upon.
They continued to be denied the right to study the Vedas. Some of the Rajput ladies of higher families were educated and took active part in public life.
They did not lag behind their men folk in bravery and heroism. Many of them participated in warfare and fought the enemy, shoulder to shoulder with their men folk.
When their warriors were defeated or killed, the Rajput ladies sacrificed their lives by burning themselves alive or committing suicides en-mass, in manifold ways, in order to safeguard their honor and self-respect; it was called the rite ofjauhar.
Caste system was the basis of social organization. There was proliferation of castes.
During this period the disabilities which the lower castes suffered increased. Most of the workers like weavers, fishermen, barbers, etc. as well as tribal were treated very harshly.
Rajput’s as a new caste had appeared on the scene. In course of time all ruling families belonging to various castes were classified as Rajput’s.
Education and science:
Education was confined to a small section— Brahmans and some sections of upper classes.
Nalanda in Bihar was the famous centre of higher learning. Other important centres were Vikramasila and Uddandapura.
Several Saiva centres of learning flourished in Kashmir.
Religion and philosophy were the popular subjects for study and discussion
Religious:
They were champions of Hinduism, though some of them patronized Jainism.
Rich donations and grant of land to Brahmans and temples.
Protectors of the privileges of Brahmans and caste system.
In return Brahmans legitimized their rule.
Buddhism had losing its popularity. It had a great patronage under the Palas of Bengal. Jainism was patronised by the Chalukyan rulers of Karnataka.
Art and architecture:
Their rule also saw the climax of temple building activity in north India. e.g.
Khajuraho temples in Madhya Pradesh by Chandellas => these temples that art of sculpture had attained its height.
Mt. Abu Jain temple.
They built several canals, dams, forts, palaces, towers etc. The palaces of Jaipur and Udaipur and forts of Chittor, Mandu, Jodhpur and Gwalior are the fine specimens of palace and fort architecture. They also built works of public benefits such as stepped wells (baolis). bunds etc.
Fine palaces, powerful forts and works of public benefits such as stepped wells (baolis). bunds etc.
The Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneswar and Surya (Sun) Temple at Konark exhibit the excellence of temple architecture of this age.
Patronized arts and letters:
Many books and plays were written in Sanskrit.
Vastupala, a famous minister of the Chalukyan ruler Bhima in Gujarat, was a writer and patron of scholars and the builder of the beautiful Jain temple at Mt. Abu. Ujjain.
Dhara, the capitals of the Paramara rulers were famous centre for Sanskrit learning.
Many works were written in Apabhramsha and Prakrit which represented the languages of the region.
The Jain scholar Hemchandra wrote both in Sanskrit and Apabhramsha.
Examples: Kalhana’s ‘Rajtarangini’ a history of Kashmir and Chandbardoi’s ‘Prithviraj Raso’ dealing with the exploits of his patron Prithviraj Chauhan may be mentioned.
Limitations:
The excessively martial character of the Rajputs had its dark side as well.
Their love for personal freedom, vanity, inflated ego and false sense of pride did not permit them to subordinate their interests or pay obedience to their more capable leaders.
They lacked political foresight and displayed absence of an overall national consciousness. Terms like ‘patriotism’, ‘motherland’ and the ‘state’ had assumed narrow, parochial or regional connotations with them.
As a result, there were constant wars and clannish feuds among them which hampered the growth of national unity and the emergence of a strong national state in India. The various clans went to war or their chiefs fought the duels simply to show off their military prowess or muscle power respectively.
They had converted mutual warfare into a sort of sport in which valuable resources in men and material were laid waste and military strength neutralized.
Because of these self-destructive and rather suicidal tendencies, the Rajputs failed to take concerted action against the Muslim invaders.
Traditional high ethical norms in fighting i.e. protection to refugees and vanquished enemies, not attacking the unarmed enemies; adhering to lofty moral conventions in-spite of being harmed several times.
General conditions of the people: There was a great disparity in the standard of living of the people.
The ministers, officials, feudal chiefs, and those having the opportunity to accumulate wealth lived in luxury and splendor.
The ordinary people lived in misery. The peasants were burdened with the land revenue and other taxes levied at the whims of the feudal lords. Besides they had to render forced labour.
On the whole, growth of the knowledge of science slowed down. Since society became increasingly rigid, thinking was mostly confined to traditional philosophy and India developed an insular attitude cut off from the main currents of scientific thought outside India. Science did not get proper scope or opportunity to develop.
The Economy during the Rajput Age
Agriculture as the Main Occupation
Agriculture remained the primary occupation of the people during the Rajput period.
The Rajput rulers made several efforts to:
Improve irrigation facilities
Increase agricultural production
For this purpose:
Canals and tanks were dug
Rainwater was collected in artificial lakes
Dams were constructed across rivers and streams
These irrigation measures:
Helped in bringing more land under cultivation
Improved agricultural output
Strengthened the economic condition of the cultivators
However, despite these improvements:
Peasants sometimes suffered under autocratic feudal chiefs
Forced labour, heavy demands and exploitation were also present in some areas
Taxes and Sources of State Income
Land revenue was the chief source of income of the state.
It was determined under a set formula based on:
Fertility of the soil
Availability of irrigation facilities
Nature of crops grown
Land revenue was:
Paid mainly in the form of agricultural produce
And partly in cash
Apart from land revenue, the state also derived income from:
Gifts
Fines
Minerals
Tolls
Forest produce
Leased-out lands
These additional sources helped the rulers maintain their administration, army and court expenditure
Industry
Although several types of industries existed:
On the whole, the condition of industry declined during this period
The important industries included:
Cotton cloth making, which supplied everyday clothing
Woollen cloth production, especially in colder regions
Weapon industry, for swords, spears, shields and armour
Manufacture of salt, an essential daily commodity
Carving of high-quality artistic pieces
Statue making from Ashtadhatu (eight metals)
Pottery making for domestic use
Ornament making using gold, silver and other metals
Other small-scale industries included:
‘Gur’ (jaggery) making
Sugar production
Oil extraction
Liquor making
These industries:
Were mostly local in nature
Served nearby rural and urban markets
Trade and Commerce
Both internal and external trade declined during the Rajput period.
However:
This decline was not uniform throughout India
Some regions continued to remain active in trade
The decline of long-distance internal trade:
Led to the weakening and decline of:
Trade guilds
Shrenis
Sanghs
The Dharmashastras written during this period:
Imposed a ban on sea travel
Travel across the salt seas (oceans) was regarded as polluting
However:
This ban was not always strictly followed
Indian merchants continued to travel overseas in practice
Along with sea-borne trade:
India maintained foreign trade through land routes as well
From the 6th century onwards:
A brisk trade developed between South India and Southeast Asian countries
Literary sources such as Harisena’s Brihatkatha-kosh:
Reflect the geographical knowledge of different regions
Describe peculiar features of:
Local languages
Dress patterns
Social customs
Several stories exist about the adventures of Indian merchants:
The most famous being the tales of Sindbad the Sailor
In South India:
Merchants were organised into powerful guilds
The most famous among them were:
Manigramam
Nanadesi
Due to the decline of the Roman Empire:
India’s sea-borne trade suffered a serious setback
India’s imports during this period included:
High-breed horses from Central Asia and Western countries
