Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839-1919)

Anglo-Afghan Wars (British relations with Afghanistan)

Context of Russian Threat

• The idea of ‘Russian peril was propagated by Lord Palmerston, British Foreign Secretary in the mid-19th century and was first mentioned by William Bentinck.
• The 19th century was a period of diplomatic competition between the British and Russian empires for spheres of influence in Asia known as the Great Game’ to the British and the ‘Tournament of Shadows’ to the Russians.
• Thus, for most of the 19th century, Russia was viewed as ‘the enemy’ in Britain, and any Russian advance into Central Asia was always assumed in London to be directed towards the conquest of India.
• In 1832, Britain had expanded its franchise which was condemned by Emperor Nicholas I of Russia. This set the stage for ‘cold war between autocratic Russia and democratic Britain. Consequently, the 19th-century Russia’s ‘Special mission in the East’ (more directed against the alleged ‘Yellow Peril’ of China rather than India) was misinterpreted.
• In 1837, Lord Palmerston, fearing the instability of Afghanistan, the Sind, and the increasing power of the Sikh kingdom in the northwest, raised the spectre of a possible Russian invasion of British India through Afghanistan, the only entrance to India from Central Asia.

British Reaction to Russian Threat

• The British reaction to the Russian threat was two-fold.
  • Forward Policy: One reaction was to secure commanding influence in Afghanistan, either by annexation or by creating it as a buffer state. This view was generally held by the members of the Conservative Party.
  • Policy of Masterly Inactivity (also known as the ‘Stationary School’): Another reaction was to reach a diplomatic understanding with Russia and follow a policy of watchful non-intervention as far as Afghanistan was concerned. This view was held by the Liberals.
• In the 1830s, the British became over-anxious to protect Afghanistan leading to the First Anglo-Afghan War which proved to be a great disaster for the British. A direct consequence of this was the annexation of Sind (1843) and Punjab (1849) in an attempt to recover the lost British prestige and made the British India’s frontier directly co-terminus with that of Afghanistan.

First Afghan War (1839-42)

• The concern for imperial defence and search for a scientific border in the north-west brought the English in contact with the Afghans. Afghanistan was considered by the British as a buffer state against the Napoleonic France and Czarist Russia. It was felt that Afghanistan should be under the control of a friendly prince.
• Dost Mohammad, the Amir (ruler) ofAfghanistan was initially anxious for English friendship and sent a congratulatory letter to Auckland, on the latter’s appointment as Governor-General.
• Dost Mohammad, however, made his friendship conditional on the receipt of English help in recovering Peshawar from Ranjit Singh.
• Auckland decided to maintain neutrality and wrote, ‘It was not the practice of British Government to interfere in the affairs of independent states’.
  • In desperation, Dost Mohammad began showing signs of friendship with Russia.

Burnes Mission:

• In September 1837, Auckland sent Capt. Alexander Burnes to Kabul outwardly on a commercial mission, but in reality to judge the political situation there.
• Burnes reported from Kabul that the Amir was entirely ‘English in views’ but insisted that British pressure must be exerted on Ranjit Singh to restore Peshawar to the Afghans.
• But Auckland was adamant that Dost Mohammad must give up all hopes of obtaining Peshawar and that the Government of India was already rendering him a great service in keeping peace between Lahore and Kabul; hence Dost Mohammad must not conclude any alliance with British enemies.
• At this, Dost Mohammad felt despaired and received the Russian ambassador with much warmth.
  • Having failed in his mission, Burnes left for India in April 1838.
• After the failure of Burnes’ mission, Governor-General Auckland decided to follow a ‘Forward Policy’; he planned to depose Dost Mohammad and entrust the country in the hands of some friendly prince.

Tripartite Treaty (26 June 1838)

• As per the plan, On 26 June 1838, Tripartite Treaty was signed between the English, Shah Shuja (ex-ruler of Afghanistan) and Ranjit Singh at Lahore.
• According to this treaty:
  • The Indian Government and Ranjit Singh agreed to assist Shah Shuja in capturing power in Afghanistan.
  • Shah Shuja promised not to negotiate with foreign states without the consent of the British and the Punjab Government.
  • Shah Shuja recognised Maharaja Ranjit Singh’s (the Sikh ruler) claims over the Afghan territories on the right bank of the River Indus.
• Following the treaty, combined forces of the three parties, known as the ‘Army of the Indus launched an attack on Kabul.
• By July 1839, the army had captured Kandahar and Ghazni. Dost Mohammad felt so disheartened by these defeats that he gave up the fight and fled to Bemian, a town northwest of Kabul. Shah Shuja was placed on the Afghan throne.
  • Thus, the British Government interfered in Afghanistan’s internal affairs without reason or excuse.
• However, the glitches in the plan became evident soon after. Shah Shuja was unacceptable to the people of Afghanistan and his position could be maintained only with the help of the British army. Thus, a small garrison was placed at Kabul under the command of General Elphinstone. But the English continued to face retaliations.
• In September 1840, Dost Mohammad, upon getting military help from the Wali of Kholoom, attacked the English but failed. Subsequently, he was arrested and sent to Calcutta as a prisoner.
• Again, in 1841, the Afghans rose in rebellion against the English. Several Englishmen in Kabul, Jalalabad, Kandahar and Ghazni were killed, and their cantonments were seized. Burnes was also killed. Macnaghten, the British official was forced to sign a humiliating treaty with Akbar Khan (son of Dost Mohammad), agreeing to evacuate Afghanistan within three days. However, Macnaghten was murdered.
• In January 1842, the disastrous retreat began from Kabul. Elphinstone, along with his 4,500 army men and 12,000 camp followers were substantially annihilated in the snow covered passes.
• Shah Shuja was also murdered in April after the British left Kabul. Thus, the entire Afghan adventure ended in total failure.

Auckland Replaced by Ellenborough

• Auckland’s grandiose plan had exploded like a balloon and he was soon replaced by Lord Ellenborough.
• Ellenborough ordered the forces to retreat after inflicting reprisals and securing the release of prisoners.
• Consequently, by September 1842, the combined British forces were able to re-establish control over Jalalabad, Kandahar and Kabul. The forces rescued the prisoners, demolished Kabuls’ main bazaar and then retreated through the Khyber Pass.
• Dost Mohammad was released and he re-established his authority in Kabul.
• The First Anglo-Afghan War was a major failure for the British, resulting in significant economic and human losses—around one and a half crores rupees and nearly 20,000 men.

Phase of Non-Interference

• The British were concerned about Russia’s growing sphere of influence. As the Russians continued to advance southward, the British resumed relations with Dost Mohammad in 1854.
• A new period of Anglo-Afghan friendship was started in 1855 with the signing of a Treaty of Friendship (Treaty of Peshawar) between Dost Muhammed and the Government of India. Under the Treaty of Peshawar, both agreed:
  • To maintain friendly and peaceful relations
  • To respect each other’s territories
  • To abstain from interfering in each other’s internal affairs
  • To be friends of each other’s friends and enemies of each other’s enemies.
    • Dost Muhammed remained loyal to the Treaty of Friendship. He maintained absolute neutrality when:
      • England was fighting against Russia in the Crimean War (1854-56)
      • England was facing the Revolt of 1857 in India.
• After 1864, the policy of non-interference was vigorously pursued by Lord Lawrence and his two successors. The British also gave the Amir of Kabul aid and assistance to help him discipline his rivals internally and maintain his independence from foreign enemies.
• Thus, by a policy of non-interference and occasional help, the Amir was prevented from aligning himself with Russia.

The Second Afghan War (1878-80)

• The policy of non-interference did not last very long.
• After the defeat in the Crimean War (1853-56), Russia turned its attention to Central Asia. From 1870 onwards, the Anglo-Russian rivalry intensified. The hysterical fear of a Russian invasion of India again haunted British officials and public opinion.
• Lord Lytton became Governor-General of India in 1876. He was asked to counter Russian influence in Afghanistan or secure a strong frontier by force.
• The Afghan ruler (Amir), Sher Ali, was aware of the Russian threat to his independence. Therefore, he was willing to cooperate with the British to eliminate any danger from the North.
• Sher Ali asked for the promise of military aid in case of need against internal or foreign enemies. The Indian Government refused to enter into any such reciprocal and unconditional commitment.
• In July 1878, King Sher Ali allowed a Russian delegate to enter Kabul. Wanting to retain the British influence, Viceroy Lord Lytton ordered a diplomatic mission to Kabul in August.
• Sher Ali refused to meet with the British mission. The British viewed this as confirmation of Sher Ali Khan’s inclination towards Russia and launched the Second Anglo-Afghan War on November 21, 1878.
• Sher Ali Khan opted to leave Kabul to seek political and military aid from the Russian Empire. He
  died in Mazar-e Sharif (a city in Afghanistan), leaving the throne to his son Mohammad Yaqub Khan.
• In November 1878, approximately 40,000 British soldiers entered Afghanistan and occupied Kabul. In May 1879, peace was achieved when Amir Yakub Khan signed the Treaty of Gandamak.
• By the Treaty of Gandamak, the British recognised the Yaqub Khan as Amir (ruler) and secured:
  • The right to keep a Resident in Kabul.
  • Control over Afghanistan’s foreign policy: Yaqub Khan agreed to conduct his foreign relations with other states in accordance “with the wishes and advice” of the British government.
• However, this British triumph was short-lived. On September 3, 1879, the British envoy, Sir Louis
  Cavagnari, and his escort were murdered in Kabul. British forces were again dispatched, and before the end of October, they occupied Kabul.
• Unpopular for signing the ‘Treaty of Gandamak’ with the British, Yakub Khan abdicated the throne in 1879. It remained vacant until July 1880, when Abdur Rahman, a grandson of Dost Muhammed, became Amir.
• In 1880, Lytton was replaced by a new Viceroy, Lord Ripon. Ripon rapidly reversed Lytton’s aggressive policy and returned to the policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of Afghanistan.
• Lord Ripon recognised Abdur Rahman as the new ruler of Afghanistan. The demand for the maintenance of a British Resident in Afghanistan was withdrawn. In return, Abdur Rahman agreed not to maintain political relations with any power except the British.
• Thus, the Amir of Afghanistan lost control of his foreign policy but retained the power to administer the country’s internal affairs.

Abdur Rahman Khan

• Abdur Rahman Khan ruled Afghanistan from 1880 to 1901.
• Northern Boundary:
  • During the reign of Abdur Rahman Khan, a joint Anglo-Russian Boundary Commission was
    formed after Russia and Great Britain agreed to work together to mark the northern boundary of
    Afghanistan.
  • The commission delineated a permanent boundary along the Amu Darya River.
• Durand Line:
  • In 1893, Abdur Rahman Khan and British Civil Servant Sir Henry Mortimer Durand agreed to mark the boundary between Afghanistan and British India. The boundary is known as the Durand Line.
  • The Durand Line cut through Pashtun villages and has been the cause of continuing conflict between Afghanistan and Pakistan.

Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919-21)

• The First World War (1914-18) and the Russian Revolution of 1917 created a new situation in Anglo-Afghan relations.
  • The war gave rise to strong anti-British feelings in Muslim countries.
  • The Russian Revolution inspired new anti-imperialist sentiments all over the world.
• The Afghans now demanded full independence from British control. Habibullah (ruler of Afghanistan) was assassinated on 20 February 1919, and his son Amanullah, the new Amir, declared open war on British India.
• By the treaty in 1921, Afghanistan recovered its independence in foreign affairs.
  • In 1919, Amanullah established diplomatic relations with Russia, making Afghanistan one of the first countries to recognize the Soviet government. As a result, a “special relationship” was developed between the two governments, which lasted until December 1979 when the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan.