UPSC Prelims Research: Geography 2024

Q. The longest border between any two countries in the world is between:

(a) Canada and the United States of America

(b) Chile and Argentina

(c) China and India

(d) Kazakhstan and Russian Federation

Answer: (a) Canada and the United States of America.

Notes:

• Canada and the United States of America: The border between Canada and the United States is the longest international land boundary in the world, stretching over 8,890 kilometers (5,525 miles). This includes both the contiguous U.S.-Canada border and the boundary between Alaska and northern Canada.
• Chile and Argentina: This is the longest land border in South America, stretching along the Andes Mountains and running for about 6,691 kilometers (4,157 miles)​. While it’s long, it ranks third in the world after Canada–U.S. and Kazakhstan–Russia.
• China and India: The border between China and India is much shorter compared to other options, at about 3,488 kilometers (2,167 miles), making it far from the longest in the world​.
• Kazakhstan and Russian Federation: This is the second-longest international border, at approximately 7,644 kilometers (4,254 miles). Although significant, it’s still shorter than the Canada–U.S. border​.

Q. Consider the following countries:

1. Italy
2. Japan
3. Nigeria
4. South Korea
5. South Africa

Which of the above countries are frequently mentioned in the media for their low birth rates, or ageing population or declining population?

(a) 1, 2 and 4
(b) 1, 3 and 5
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 3 and 5 only

Answer: (a) 1, 2 and 4

Notes:

• The countries frequently mentioned in the media for their low birth rates, ageing populations, or declining populations are Italy, Japan, and South Korea.
  • Italy: Italy has long faced demographic challenges, including low birth rates and a rapidly ageing population. The country has been struggling with these issues for decades, which has serious implications for its economy and social support systems.
    • The Italian population is also expected to more than halve, from 61 million in 2017 to 28 million by the end of the century. Like Japan, Italy is known for its ageing population.
    • More than 23% of people there were over the age of 65 in 2019, according to World Bank data.
  • Japan: Japan is often discussed in the global context for its ageing society and extremely low birth rate. With a shrinking workforce and high life expectancy, Japan is a prime example of a country grappling with demographic decline.
    • Japan’s population will more than halve, from a peak of 128 million in 2017 to less than 53 million by the end of the century. Japan already has the world’s oldest population and the highest rate of people over the age of 100.
  • South Korea: South Korea is also frequently highlighted for having one of the lowest birth rates in the world. The country faces a similar trajectory to Japan, with concerns over its ageing population and the long-term sustainability of its economy.
• On the other hand, Nigeria and South Africa do not fall under this category.
  • Nigeria has one of the highest birth rates globally, with a large, youthful population. It is growing rapidly and faces challenges related to managing its young population rather than ageing concerns.
    • Nigeria and other countries in Africa are bucking the trend of population decline. Nigeria will become the world’s second most populous country, with 791 million people. The new study predicts that Nigeria will have one of the largest working-age populations in the world by 2100 and see big increases in GDP.
  • South Africa, while having certain socio-economic challenges, is not commonly cited for population decline or ageing to the extent seen in the other three countries. The country has a more balanced population pyramid compared to nations like Italy or Japan.

Q. Consider the following statements:

1. The Red Sea receives very little precipitation in any form.
2. No water enters the Red Sea from rivers.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (a) 1 only

Notes:

• The Red Sea region receives very little precipitation in any form, although prehistoric artifacts indicate that there were periods with greater amounts of rainfall. In general, the climate is conducive to outdoor activity in fall, winter, and spring—except during windstorms— with temperatures varying between 8 and 28 °C. Summer temperatures, however, are much higher, up to 40 °C, and relative humidity is high, rendering vigorous activity unpleasant. In the northern part of the Red Sea area, extending down to 19° N, the prevailing winds are north to northwest.
• Generally speaking, the average salinity of the oceans is 35.2 ppt, about 35 parts of salt in 1000 parts of water. In the Red Sea where there is much surface evaporation and fewer rivers to bring in fresh water, the average salinity increases to 39 ppt. While there are no significant rivers that drain into the Red Sea there are small rivulets that flow into the red sea and it may not be entirely correct to say that no water enters the Red Sea from rivers.
  • Here are some of the major rivers that drain into the Red Sea:
    • Nile River: Although primarily associated with the Mediterranean, the Nile River also has some tributaries that flow into the Red Sea through Sudan.
    • Barka River: Also known as the Baraka River, it flows through the Barka Valley in Eritrea and drains into the Red Sea.
    • Hadas River: Located in northern Eritrea, the Hadas River is another watercourse that eventually reaches the Red Sea.
    • Anseba River: This river flows through central Eritrea, and its waters also reach the Red Sea.
    • Wadi Gasus: A wadi (seasonal river) in Eritrea that flows into the Red Sea during the rainy season.
    • Aqiq River: Located in western Saudi Arabia, the Aqiq River flows into the Red Sea near the city of Yanbu.
    • Wadi Arar: A seasonal river in Saudi Arabia that drains into the Red Sea near the city of Duba.
    • Wadi Sha’ib: Another seasonal river in Saudi Arabia that empties into the Red Sea.

Q. Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: The atmosphere is heated more by incoming solar radiation than by terrestrial radiation.

Statement-II: Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are good absorbers of long wave radiation.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

(a)  Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II explains Statement-I

(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct. but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I

(c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect

(d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

Answer: (d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

Notes:

• The atmosphere is largely transparent to short wave solar radiation. The incoming solar radiation passes through the atmosphere before striking the earth’s surface. Within the troposphere water vapour, ozone and other gases absorb much of the near infrared radiation.
• The insolation received by the earth is in short waves forms and heats up its surface. The earth after being heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere in long wave form. This energy heats up the atmosphere from below. This process is known as terrestrial radiation.
• The long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon dioxide and the other green house gases. Thus, the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the earth’s radiation.

Q. Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: Thickness of the troposphere at the equator is much greater as compared to poles.

Statement-II: At the equator, heat is transported to great heights by strong convectional currents.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

(a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-I Statement-II explains

(b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct, but Statement-II does not explain Statement-I

(c) Statement-I is correct, but Statement-II is incorrect

(d) Statement-I is incorrect, but Statement-II is correct

Answer: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-I Statement-II explains

Notes:

• The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13 km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km near the poles and about 18 km at the equator.
• The reason for this variation is that the equatorial regions receive more intense solar energy, heating the surface and causing the air to rise higher. This makes the troposphere thicker at the equator.
• Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at the equator because heat is transported to great heights by strong convectional currents.
• This layer contains dust particles and water vapour. All changes in climate and weather take place in this layer. The temperature in this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for every 165m of height. This is the most important layer for all biological activity.
• The zone separating the tropsophere from stratosphere is known as the tropopause. The air temperature at the tropopause is about minus 80°C over the equator and about minus 45°C over the poles. The temperature here is nearly constant, and hence, it is called the tropopause.

Q. Consider the following:

1. Pyroclastic debris
2. Ash and dust
3. Nitrogen compounds
4. Sulphur compounds

How many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions?

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) Only three
(d) All four

Answer: (d) All four

Notes:

• A volcano is a place where gases, ashes and/or molten rock material – lava – escape to the ground. A volcano is called an active volcano if the materials mentioned are being released or have been released out in the recent past. The layer below the solid crust is mantle. It has higher density than that of the crust. The mantle contains a weaker zone called asthenosphere. It is from this that the molten rock materials find their way to the surface.
• The material in the upper mantle portion is called magma. Once it starts moving towards the crust or it reaches the surface, it is referred to as lava.
• The material that reaches the ground includes lava flows, pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash and dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, sulphur compounds and minor amounts of chlorene, hydrogen and argon.
  • Pyroclastic debris: Pyroclastic debris consists of fragments of rock and volcanic glass created during explosive volcanic eruptions.
  • Ash and dust: Volcanic ash and dust are fine particles ejected into the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions.

Q. Which of the following is/are correct inference/inferences from isothermal maps in the month of January?

1. The isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean and to the south over the continent.
2. The presence of cold ocean currents, Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift make the North Atlantic Ocean colder and the isotherms bend towards the north.

Select the answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer:(a) 1 only

Notes:

• The Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature.
• Figure given below shows the distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January. In general the effect of the latitude on temperature is well pronounced on the map as the isotherms are generally parallel to the latitude. The deviation from this general trend is more pronounced in January than in July, especially in the northern hemisphere. In the northern hemisphere the land surface area is much larger than in the southern hemisphere. Hence, the effects of land mass and the ocean currents are well pronounced.
• In January the isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean and to the south over the continent. This can be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean. The presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream and North Atlantic drift, make the Northern Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend towards the north. Over the land the temperature decreases sharply and the isotherms bend towards south in Europe. It is much pronounced in the Siberian plain.
• The mean January temperature along 60° E longitude is minus 20° C both at 80° N and 50° N latitudes. The mean monthly temperature for January is over 27° C, in equatorial oceans over 24° C in the tropics and 2° C – 0° C in the middle latitudes and –18° C to –48° C in the Eurasian continental interior.
• The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in the southern hemisphere. Here the isotherms are more or less parallel to the latitudes and the variation in temperature is more gradual than in the northern hemisphere. The isotherm of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C runs parallel to 35°S, 45° S and 60° S latitudes respectively.

Q. Which of the following countries are well known as the two largest cocoa producers in the world?

(a) Algeria and Morocco

(b) Botswana and Namibia

(c) Cote d’ Ivoire Coast and Ghana

(d) Madagascar and Mozambique

Answer: (c) Cote d’ Ivoire Coast and Ghana

Notes:

• Cocoa, a native to the Americas, was a valuable crop in the earliest South American cultures. The term cocoa originated from the Nahuatl word “cacahuatl”.
• Many believe that the plant first grew in the Amazon and upper Orinoco basins but the Mayans and the Aztecs eventually developed techniques to cultivate cocoa successfully. The plant was considered as a symbol of wealth for these civilizations and its beans were used as currency. Cocoa beans are the main ingredient for making chocolate.
• Cocoa beans are produced in tropical zones around the Equator, where climate conditions are well suited for growing cocoa trees. About 70 percent of the world’s cocoa beans come from four West African countries: Ivory Coast, Ghana, Nigeria and Cameroon.
• The Ivory Coast and Ghana are by far the two largest producers of cocoa, accounting for more than 50 percent of the world´s cocoa. In 2021, the Ivory Coast alone produced approximately 2.1 million metric tons of cocoa beans.

Q. With reference to the Himalayan rivers joining the Ganga downstream of Prayagraj from West to East, which one of the following sequences is correct?

(a) Ghaghara – Gomati – Gandak – Kosi

(b) Gomati – Ghaghara – Gandak – Kosi

(c) Ghaghara – Gomati – Kosi – Gandak

(d) Gomati – Ghaghara – Kosi – Gandak

Answer: (b) Gomati – Ghaghara – Gandak – Kosi

Notes:

• The Gomti is an alluvial river that originates from the Gomat Taal, otherwise called Fulhaar Jheel, found near the Madho Tanda in Pilibhit district in Uttar Pradesh, India. After flowing through an incised valley southwards through the districts of Sitapur, Lucknow, Barabanki, Sultanpur, and Jaunpur, it joins River Ganga near Varanasi.
• The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo. After collecting the waters of its
  tributaries – Tila, Seti and Beri, it comes out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at Shishapani.
  • The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally meets the Ganga at Chhapra.
• The Gandak comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the central part of Nepal. It enters the Ganga plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.
• The Kosi is an antecedent river with its source to the north of Mount Everest in Tibet, where its main stream Arun rises. After crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it is joined by the Son Kosi from the West and the Tamur Kosi from the east. It forms Sapt Kosi after uniting with the river Arun. The Kosi river joins Ganga in the Katihar district of Bihar.

Q. Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: Rainfall is one of the reasons for weathering of rocks.

Statement-II: Rain water contains carbon dioxide in solution.

Statement-III: Rain water contains atmospheric oxygen.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

(a) Both Statement-II and Statement-III are correct and both of them explain Statement-I

(b) Both Statement-II and Statement-III are correct, but only one of them explains Statement-I

(c) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement-I

(d) Neither Statement-II nor Statement-III is correct

Answer: (a) Both Statement-II and Statement-III are correct and both of them explain Statement-I

Notes:

• Chemical weathering is the basic process by which denudation proceeds. It is the extremely slow and gradual decomposition of rocks due to exposure to air and water. Air and water contain chemical elements, which though they may be in small quantities, are sufficient to set up chemical reactions in the surface layers of exposed rocks. Such reactions may weaken or entirely dissolve certain constituents of the rock, thus loosening the other crystals and weakening the whole surface.
• There are three major chemical weathering processes:
  • Solution: Many minerals are dissolved by water, especially when, as with rain-water, it contains enough carbon dioxide to make it a weak acid. Solution is the most potent weathering process in limestone regions because the rain-water attacks and dissolves the calcium carbonate of which the rock is chiefly formed. The dissolved calcium carbonate is carried away by the water, joints and cracks in the rock are quickly widened and whole systems of caves and passages are worn out. Limestone, however, is by no means the only rock to suffer from solution. All rocks are subject to solution to some extent, though the process is much slower than with limestone.
  • Oxidation: Dissolved oxygen is present in all rainwater and surface supplies due to contact with the atmosphere. Oxidation is the reaction of oxygen in air or water with minerals in the rock. For example, most rocks contain a certain amount of iron, which when it comes in contact with air is changed to iron oxide, familiar brownish crust or rust. Iron oxide crumbles easily and is fat more easily eroded than the original iron. It is thus removed, loosening the overall structure of the rocks and weakening them.
  • Decomposition by Organic acids: Within the soil which covers most rocks are bacteria which thrive on decaying plant or animal material. These bacteria produce acids which, when dissolved in water, help to speed up the weathering of the underlying rocks.

Q. Consider the following countries:

1. Finland
2. Germany
3. Norway
4. Russia

How many of the above countries have a border with the North Sea?

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) Only three
(d) All four

Answer: (b) Only two

Notes:

• North sea in northern Europe is part of the Atlantic ocean.
• It is bordered by the United Kingdom and Norway to the west, Denmark to the south, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France to the east, and the Faroe Islands and Norway’s Svalbard archipelago to the north.
• The North Sea connects to the Atlantic Ocean via the English Channel in the southwest and the Baltic Sea in the east via the Kattegat and Skagerrak straits.

Q. Consider the following information:

	Waterfall	Region	River
1.	Dhuandhar	Malwa	Narmada
2.	Hundru	Chota Nagpur	Subarnarekha
3.	Gersoppa	Western Ghats	Netravati

In how many of the above rows is the given information correctly matched?

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) Only three
(d) All four

Answer: (a) Only one

Notes:

• The Dhuandhar Falls is a waterfall in Jabalpur district in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, it is created by river Narmada. Jabalpur is not located in the Malwa region. It is located in the Mahakoshal region. The Vindhya Range forms the northern boundary of the Mahakoshal region; north of the Vindhya Range lie the regions of Malwa to the northwest, Bundelkhand to the north, and Bagelkhand to the northeast. Chhattisgarh state lies to the east, and the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra state lies to the south across the Satpura Range.
• The Hundru Falls Ranchi, Jharkhand is created on the course of the Subarnarekha River, where it falls from a height of 320 feet creating the highest waterfalls of the state. It is the 34th highest waterfall in India. The Subarnarekha originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand Forming the boundary between West Bengal and Odisha in its lower course. It joins the Bay of Bengal forming an estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas. Its total length is 395 km.
• Gersoppa waterfall is created by the Sharavathi River falling from a height of 253 m (830ft), making it the second-highest plunge waterfall in India. Located near Sagara, Shimoga District of Karnataka state. It is also called by alternative names of Gerusoppa falls, Gersoppa Falls and Jogada Gundi. The Sharavathi River basin is situated in the central part of the Western Ghats. It originates at Ambuthirtha and flows towards west for about 132 km before joining the Arabian Sea at Honnavar.

Q. Consider the following information:

	Region	Name of the mountain range	Type of mountain
1.	Central Asia	Vosges	Fold mountain
2.	Europe	Alps	Block mountain
3.	North America	Appalachians	Fold mountain
4.	South America	Andes	Fold mountain

In how many of the above rows is the given information correctly matched?

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) Only three
(d) All four

Answer: (b) Only two

Notes:

• The Vosges mountains are located in France (Europe), not Central Asia, and they are a block mountain, not a fold mountain.
• The Alps, located in Europe, are fold mountains, not block mountains. Fold mountains are formed by the collision of tectonic plates.
• The Appalachian Mountains in North America are fold mountains, formed during the collision of tectonic plates.
• The Andes mountains in South America are a prominent example of fold mountains, formed by the subduction of oceanic plates beneath the South American plate.

Q. With reference to “water vapour”, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. It is a gas, the amount of which decreases with altitude.
2. Its percentage is maximum at the poles.

Select the answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (a) 1 only

Notes:

• Water vapour is also a variable gas in the atmosphere, which decreases with altitude. In the warm and wet tropics, it may account for four per cent of the air by volume, while in the dry and cold areas of desert and polar regions, it may be less than one per cent of the air.
• Water vapour also decreases from the equator towards the poles. It also absorbs parts of the insolation from the sun and preserves the earth’s radiated heat. It thus, acts like a blanket allowing the earth neither to become too cold nor too hot. Water vapour also contributes to the stability and instability in the air.
• The cold temperatures at the poles mean that the air can hold very little moisture. In contrast, warm tropical air can hold much more water vapor.

Q. Consider the following description:

1. Annual and daily range of temperatures is low.
2. Precipitation occurs throughout the year.
3. Precipitation varies between 50cm – 250cm.

What is this type of climate?

(a) Equatorial climate
(b) China type climate
(c) Humid subtropical climate
(d) Marine West coast climate

Answer: (d) Marine West coast climate

Notes:

• The marine west coast climate (British type) is found along a relatively narrow strip of coastal Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and southern Alaska in North America. It is likewise found along coastal Chile in South America. The marine west coast climate extends further inland into northwest Europe than in North America due to the orientation of mountains. This climate is also found on the southeast coast of Australia and New Zealand.
• The marine west coast is noted for its mild summers and winters and, as a result, a small annual temperature range. Its location on the west coast of a continent in the midlatitudes places the climate in the path of the Westerlies. In this situation, the climate receives a constant influx of oceanic air throughout the year. The mild temperatures are a direct result of the moderating influence of ocean bodies on air temperatures. The is especially true for those situations where a warm ocean current borders the continent, like the North Atlantic Drift’s effect on northwestern Europe. Temperature ranges increase as one moves away from the coast.
• The marine west coast climate is dominated by cyclonic activity embedded in the Westerlies. Frequent cyclonic storms bring prolonged periods of rain, drizzle and fog to these west coast locations. In some locations it is not uncommon to receive as much as 250 cm (100 in) of precipitation in a year.

Must Read: Climatic Regions of World

Q. With reference to “Coriolis force”, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. It increases with increase in wind velocity.
2. It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator.

Select the answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2

Coriolis Force

• The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind. This force is called the Coriolis force after the French physicist who described it in 1844.
• It deflects the wind to the right direction in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.
• The Coriolis force is directly proportional to the angle of latitude. It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator.
• The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force. The pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an isobar. The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the velocity of the wind and the larger is the deflection in the direction of wind. As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the low-pressure areas the wind blows around it.
• At the equator, the Coriolis force is zero and the wind blows perpendicular to the isobars. The low pressure gets filled instead of getting intensified. That is the reason why tropical cyclones are not formed near the equator.

Coriolis Force and Wind Movement

• Due to the earth’s rotation, winds do not cross the isobars at right angles as the pressure gradient force directs, but get deflected from their original path. This deviation is the result of the earth’s rotation and is called the Coriolis effect or Coriolis force.
• Due to this effect, winds in the northern hemisphere get deflected to the right of their path and those in the southern hemisphere to their left, following Farrell’s Law (the law that wind is deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere, derived from the application of the Coriolis effect to air masses).
• This deflection force does not seem to exist until the air is set in motion and increases with wind velocity, air mass and an increase in latitude.
• The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force (pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an isobar)
• As a result of these two forces operating perpendicular to each other, in the low-pressure areas the wind blows around it (cyclonic conditions).

Q. On June 21 every year, which of the following latitude(s) experience(s) a sunlight of more than 12 hours?

1. Equator
2. Tropic of Cancer
3. Tropic of Capricorn
4. Arctic Circle

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 3 and 4
(d) 2 and 4

Answer: (d) 2 and 4

Notes:

• The axis of the earth which is an imaginary line, makes an angle of 66½° with its orbital plane. The plane formed by the orbit is known as the orbital plane. The earth receives light from the sun. Due to the spherical shape of the earth, only half of it gets light from the sun at a time. The portion facing the sun experiences day while the other half away from the sun experiences night.
• On 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall directly on the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat. The areas near the poles receive less heat as the rays of the sun are slanting.
• The North Pole is inclined towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle experience continuous daylight for about six months. Since a large portion of the Northern Hemisphere is getting light from the sun, it is summer in the regions north of the equator. The longest day and the shortest night at these places occur on 21st June. At this time in the Southern Hemisphere all these conditions are reversed. It is winter season there. The nights are longer than the days. This position of the earth is called the Summer Solstice.

Q. The total fertility rate in an economy is defined as:

(a) the number of children born per 1000 people in the population in a year.

(b) the number of children born to a couple in their lifetime in a given population.

(c) the birth rate minus death rate.

(d) the average number of live births a woman would have by the end of her child-bearing age.

Answer: (d) the average number of live births a woman would have by the end of her child-bearing age.

Notes:

• The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is the average number of children born to a woman over her lifetime if she were to experience the current age-specific fertility rates, and if she lived from birth until the end of her reproductive life.
• In India, the TFR has experienced a significant decline, from nearly 6.2 children per woman in 1950 to just under 2 children per woman in 2021.
• TFR of about 2.1 children per woman is called Replacement-level fertility. TFR lower than 2.1 children per woman — indicates that a generation is not producing enough children to replace itself, eventually leading to an outright reduction in population.

Other Options:

• Option (a): This describes the crude birth rate, which measures the number of live births per 1,000 people in a given year.
  • The CBR is calculated by dividing the number of live births by the estimated midyear population and then multiplying by 1,000.
• Option (b): This could be confused with the concept of “lifetime births,” but it does not accurately capture the statistical definition of TFR, which considers current fertility rates.
• Option (c): This represents the net growth rate but does not accurately reflect fertility rates.