Q. Which one of the following is not a Harappan site?
(a) Chanhudaro
(b) Kot Diji
(c) Sohgaura
(d) Desalpur
Answer: (c) Sohgaura
Notes:
- Chanhudaro: It is a Harappan site located in Sindh, Pakistan. It is one of the most well-planned and well-designed cities of the Harappan civilization. The city was divided into two parts – the citadel and the lower town. The citadel was the administrative and religious center of the city.
- Kot Diji: It is a Harappan site located in the Khairpur district of Sindh, Pakistan. It was discovered in 1955 by the Pakistani archaeologist Ahmed Hasan Dani. The site is famous for its well-planned streets, public buildings, and houses.
- Sohagaura: It is not a Harappan site. It is an archaeological site located in the Gorakhpur district of Uttar Pradesh, India. The site belongs to the Mauryan period, which is much later than the Harappan civilization.
- Desalpur: It is a Harappan site located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, India. The site is famous for its well-planned streets, drainage system, and water supply system.
Q. In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?
(a) Kanganahalli
(b) Sanchi
(c) Shahbazagrhi
(d) Sohgaura
Answer: (a) Kanganahalli
Notes:
- Kanganahalli
- Kanaganahalli (an important Buddhist site) is located near Sannati, Karnataka. The Kanaganahalli inscription features a unique depiction of Ashoka with the title “Ranyo Ashoka” inscribed alongside the image, making it the only known sculptural representation of Ashoka with his name mentioned.
- Shahbazgarhi
- Shahbazgarhi in Pakistan is known for rock edicts of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka.
- Shahbazgarhi rock edicts are cut into the surface of two large boulders on the side of a small rocky outcrop in the Valley of Peshawar.
- Sanchi Stupa
- Sanchi stupa at Madhya Pradesh is one of the earliest Buddhist monuments in India built by Emperor Ashoka.
- Sohgaura
- Sohgaura is a copper plate inscription written in Prakrit in the Bramhi script.
- It was discovered in Sohgaura, a village in Gorakhpur district, Uttar Pradesh.
Q. Consider the following:
- Deification of the Buddha
- Treading the path of Bodhisattvas
- Image worship and rituals
Which of the above is/are the feature/ features of Mahayana Buddhism?
(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3
Mahayana (Greater Vehicle):
- Emеrgеd around 1st century BCE during thе Fourth Buddhist Council, еmphasizing thе concеpt of Bodhisattvas – enlightened beings who dеlay nirvana to hеlp othеrs.
- Mahayana Buddhism consider Gautama Buddha to be a divine being who will help his followers to attain nirvana.
- Thе Gupta еmpеror Harshavardhana patronizеd Mahayana, еstablishing monastеriеs and supporting the translation of tеxts into Sanskrit.
- From Kashmir, Mahayana sprеad to Cеntral Asia, China, Korеa, Japan and Viеtnam.
- Mahayana is considered morе progressive than thе oldеr Theravada tradition. It is inclusivе of lay followers unlikе Thеravada’s monastic focus.
- Kеy Mahayana concеpts includе:
- Bodhisattva (onе who dеlays nirvana to hеlp othеrs) and Buddha-naturе (potential for enlightenment in all beings).
- Scripturеs likе Lotus Sutra and Heart Sutra еmphasizе thе virtuеs of compassion and wisdom.
- Scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism were written Sanskrit.
- Sub-sеcts include Yogacara and Madhyamaka
- Madhyamaka:
- Madhyamaka comes from Buddha’s famous ‘middle position’ (madhyama pratipad).
- Also known as Sunyavada, it was systematised by Nagarjuna. His famous work is MulaMadhyamikaKarika.
- Yogacara, also known as Vijnanavada, is the only idealistic school in Buddhism and Indian philosophy in the strict sense.
- It is not only idealism but also absolutism.
- It focuses on the workings of the mind and the nature of consciousness.
- As a metaphysical system, it comes up against the extreme nihilism of Madhyamika.
- Madhyamaka:
- Mahayana’s universal ideals appealed to the masses as it spread via Silk Route trade networks to China and East Asia.
- Sculptural Buddha images and Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara embodied Mahayana’s spiritual themes.
- Faith and Worship:
- Mahayana Buddhism incorporated elements of faith and worship, viewing the Buddha and Bodhisattvas as divine or semi-divine figures.
- Bhakti and Devotion:
- The concept of “bhakti” (devotion) became important, with practitioners seeking the blessings and guidance of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
- The three bodies of a Buddha are accepted in Mahayana Buddhism. They are as follows:
- Nirmanakaya
- Sambhogakaya
- Dharmakaya
- The ten-far reaching attitude in Mahayana is as follows:
- Generosity
- Self-Discipline
- Patience
- Perseverance
- Mental Stability
- Wisdom
- Skills in Means
- Aspirational Prayers
- Strengthening
- Deep Awareness
Q. With reference to forced labour (Vishti) in India during the Gupta period, which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) It was considered a source of income for the State, a sort of tax paid by the people.
(b) It was totally absent in the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of the Gupta Empire.
(c) The forced labourer was entitled to weekly wages.
(d) The eldest son of the labourer was sent as the forced labourer.
Answer: (a) It was considered a source of income for the State, a sort of tax paid by the people.
Taxes (Gupta Period):
- Vishti:
- In the Gupta period, Vishti or forced labor became a source of income for the state and was looked upon as a sort of taxation paid by the people.
- Vishti was forced labour in lieu of tax and therefore not entitled to weekly wages.
- Anyone can be sent as the forced labourer, not particularly from the eldest son of the labourer.
- Most of the inscriptions refers to Vishti as more prevalent in the Madhya Pradesh and Kathiawar regions of the Gupta Empire.
- Vishti was part of the broader Varnashrama system during the Gupta period, reflecting the hierarchical socio-political structure. While it was primarily seen as a tax obligation, it was often imposed on the lower classes, especially peasants and common workers.
- Gupta Empire (circa 4th to 6th century CE) is known for its efficient administration, flourishing arts, and advancements in science and mathematics, but social inequality and labour impositions such as Vishti were common during this period.
- In the Gupta period, Vishti or forced labor became a source of income for the state and was looked upon as a sort of taxation paid by the people.
- Uparikara — Levied on cloth, oil, etc. when taken from one city to another.
- Shulka — Commercial tax paid by the organisation of the traders. Non-payment of which resulted in cancellation of the right to trade and a fine amounting to eight times of the original Shulka.
Q. Building ‘Kalyaana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of
(a) Chalukya
(b) Chandela
(c) Rashtrakuta
(d) Vijayanagara
Answer: (d) Vijayanagara
Notes:
- The Vijayanagara Empire (14th to 17th centuries) was known for its rich architectural tradition, with Hampi as the capital, where some of the most exquisite examples of temple architecture were built.
- Kalyana Mandapas were typically large, pillared halls with intricate carvings that depicted mythological stories, gods, goddesses, and celestial beings.
- These mandapas were not just architectural marvels but were deeply integrated into the ritualistic and cultural life of the people, especially for conducting marriages of the temple deities, which were considered auspicious.
- The Virupaksha Temple, Vittala Temple, and Hazara Rama Temple in Hampi are notable examples of Vijayanagara architecture, where Kalyana Mandapas played a crucial role.
- Apart from marriage ceremonies, the mandapas were also used during festivals and processions, acting as a place where the community gathered for celebrations.
- The pillars of the Kalyana Mandapas were often musical, producing different tones when struck, which added to the spiritual and artistic experience within the temple premises.
- The construction of these mandapas is reflective of the economic prosperity and religious fervor of the Vijayanagara rulers, who were devout Hindus and patrons of temple construction, aimed at unifying religious, social, and economic aspects of their empire.
