UPSC Prelims Research: Ancient History & Art and Culture 2020

Q. With reference to the scholars/litterateurs of ancient India, consider the following statements:

1. Panini is associated with Pushyamitra
2. Amarasimha is associated with Harshavardhana
3. Kalidasa is associated with Chandra Gupta-II

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (c) 3 only

Panini:

• He was born in Shalatula on the Indus River in present-day Pakistan.
• Panini is a Sanskrit grammarian known for his comprehensive and scientific theory of phonetics, phonology, and morphology.
• His major work, Astadhyayi, consists of eight chapters detailing the rules of Sanskrit grammar.
• He is considered the founder of the language and literature of Sanskrit, and his dates are generally placed in the 4th to 7th century BCE, all of which are pre-Mauryan.

Pushyamitra Shunga

• Pushyamitra Shunga on the other hand was the founder and first ruler of the Shunga Empire and ruled around 1st century BC.
• Pushyamitra Sunga was Brahmin army chief of Brihadratha, the last king of the Mauryas.
• During a military parade, he killed Brihadratha and established himself on the throne in 185 or 186 BC.
  • According to some historians, this was an internal revolt against the last Mauryan king. Some say it was a Brahminical reaction to the Mauryan overwhelming patronage of Buddhism.
• Pushyamitra Sunga’s capital was at Pataliputra.
• He successfully countered attacks from two Greek kings namely, Menander and Demetrius.
• He also thwarted an attack from the Kalinga king Kharavela.
• He conquered Vidarbha.
• He followed Brahminism. Some accounts portray him as a persecutor of Buddhists and a destroyer of stupas but there has been no authoritative evidence to this claim.
• During his reign, the Stupas at Sanchi and Barhut were renovated. He built the sculptured stone gateway at Sanchi.
• He performed Vedic sacrifices such as Ashvamedha, Rajasuya and Vajapeya.
• Pushyamitra Sunga patronised the Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali.
• According to the Puranas, his reign lasted for 36 years. He died in 151 BC.

Amarasimha:

• Amarasimha was a Sanskrit grammarian and poet, reputed to be one of the “nine gems” in the court of Vikramaditya.
• His notable work, Amara-Kosha, is a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots divided into three books.
• Amarasimha belongs to the Gupta era, while Harshavardhana is a post-Gupta king.

Kalidasa:

• Kalidasa is often regarded as the greatest playwright and dramatist of ancient India, known for works such as Shakuntala and Malavika and Agnimitra.
• Traditionally, he is believed to have been associated with Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya (Chandra Gupta II), although the exact dates of his life remain disputed.

Chandragupta II

• Chandragupta II, also known by his title Vikramaditya, as well as Chandragupta Vikramaditya, was the third ruler of the Gupta Empire.
• Chandragupta II was the next great emperor of Gupta empire after his father Samudragupta. He came to be known by his title Vikramaditya (Power of Sun).
• The most important event of Chandragupta II’s reign was conquest of Sakas. He destroyed the Saka chieftain Rudrasena III and annexed his kingdom. Banabhatta’s Harshacharita gives a reference to this event. According to Banabhatta, Rudrasena was killed while courting another man’s wife by Chandragupta.
• His daughter Prabhavati Gupta was married to Vakataka king Rudrasena II. 
• He issued silver currency in close imitation of that of the Sakas after the occupation of their territory.
• Chandragupta made Ujjain his second capital. Ujjain enjoyed pre-eminence as a religious & political centre.
• Chinese traveller Fa Hien had visited India during the time of Chandragupta II.
• Mehrauli Iron Pillar (established by Chandragupta as Vishnupada in the honour of Lord Vishnu) credits Chandragupta with spread of his fame to southern seas and attainment of Ekadhirajjyam (United Kingdom) by prowess of his arms.
• Chandragupta II was known for his deep interest in art and culture and nine gems or Navratna adorned his court.
  • Amarsimha (Sanskrit lexicographer and a poet, Author of Amarkosha)
  • Dhanvantri (Physician & medicine)
  • Harisena (composed the Prayag Prasasti or Allahabad Pillar Inscription)
  • Kalidasa (Most famous Sanskrit poet and playwright)
  • Kahapanaka (astrologer)
  • Sanku (field of Architecture)
  • Varahamihira (astronomical systems, mathematician and sciences)
  • Vararuchi (grammarian and Sanskrit scholar)
  • Vetalbhatta (magician)

Q. With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs:

1.	Aurang	–	In-charge of treasury of the State
2.	Banian	–	Indian agent of the East India Company
3.	Mirasidar	–	Designated revenue payer to the State

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only

Notes:

• Aurang:
  • The term “Aurang” is a Persian term, actually refers to a warehouse or a place where goods are stored before being sold.
  • It does not specifically denote the in-charge of the treasury of the State.
• Banian:
  • The term “Banian” refers to a merchant or an Indian agent who acted on behalf of the East India Company.
  • They served as brokers, interpreters, and agents for European merchants in India.
• Mirasidar:
  • The term “Mirasidar” designates individuals recognized as the sole proprietors of land under the ryotwari settlement system.
  • They were responsible for paying revenue to the State.

Q. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:

1. Sthaviravadins belong to Mahayana Buddhism.
2. Lokottaravadin sect was an offshoot of Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism.
3. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered Mahayana Buddhism.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only

Notes:

• Sthaviravadins:
  • The Sthaviravadins are actually associated with the Theravada school of Buddhism.
  • They emphasize the original teachings of the Buddha and adhere to the Pali Canon.
• Lokottaravadin Sect:
  • The Lokottaravadin sect is indeed considered an offshoot of the Mahasanghika sect of Buddhism.
  • This sect believed in the supernatural qualities of the Buddha and his teachings.
• Deification of Buddha:
  • The Mahasanghikas did foster the deification of the Buddha, which significantly contributed to the development of Mahayana Buddhism.
  • This belief system emphasized the divine nature of the Buddha and led to the incorporation of more elaborate religious practices and teachings.

Hinayana (Lesser vehicle)/ Theravada

• “Teaching of the Elders”
• It emphasises individual liberation from suffering through personal effort and meditation.
• This school focuses on the original teachings of Buddha as found in the Pali Canon and the Tripitaka.
• Believes- only one historical Buddha- Shakyamuni 
• Samrat Ashoka–  Contributed to spread
• It is the oldest surviving branch of Buddhism
• Practised in Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia.
• Sub-sects:
  • Sarvastivada, Sthaviravada, Vibhajjavada, Sammitiya

Mahayana (Greater vehicle)

• Emerged in the 4th Buddhist council around the first century BCE.
• It emphasises the concept of Bodhisattvas, who are beings that work for the enlightenment of all sentient beings.
• Harshvarddhana was the patronage of Mahayana Buddhism; he established numerous monasteries and Buddhist institutions, sponsored the translation of Buddhist texts into Sanskrit, and organised Buddhist assemblies and councils.
• From Kashmir spread to Central Asia – China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and includes
• Sub-sects:
  • Pure Land Buddhism, Zen Buddhism, and Tibetan Buddhism.

Q. Consider the following events in the history of India:

1. Rise of Pratiharas under King Bhoja
2. Establishment of Pallava power under Mahendravarman-I
3. Establishment of Chola power by Parantaka-I
4. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala

What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?

(a) 2 – 1 – 4 – 3
(b) 3 – 1 – 4 – 2
(c) 2 – 4 – 1 – 3
(d) 3 – 4 – 1 – 2

Answer: (c) 2 – 4 – 1 – 3

Notes:

• The Pallava dynasty existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a significant portion of the Deccan, also known as Tondaimandalam. Pallavas became a major power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571–630 CE).
  • Some of the most ornate monuments and temples in southern India, carved out of solid rock, were introduced under his rule. He also wrote the play Mattavilasa Prahasana.
• Gopala Founded the Pala dynasty in CE 750 and ruled till 770s CE.
• King Bhoja of Pratihara ruled during  836-885 CE.
• Parantaka I of the Chola dynasty ruled during 907-953 CE.

Q. Which of the following phrases defines the nature of the ‘Hundi’ generally referred to in the sources of the post-Harsha period?

(a) An advisory issued by the king to his subordinates

(b) A diary to be maintained for daily accounts

(c) A bill of exchange

(d) An order from the feudal lord to his subordinates

Answer: (c) A bill of exchange

Hundi:

• It is a financial instrument that developed in Medieval India for use in trade and credit transactions.
• They were used
  • As remittance instruments (to transfer funds from one place to another)
  • As credit instruments (to borrow money)
  • trade transactions (as bills of exchange).

Taxes:

• Uparikara — Levied on cloth, oil, etc. when taken from one city to another.
• Shulka — Commercial tax paid by the organisation of the traders. Non-payment of which resulted in cancellation of the right to trade and a fine amounting to eight times of the original Shulka.
• Vishthi — Practice of Forced labour

Q. With reference to the history of India, the terms ‘kulyavapa’ and ‘dronavapa’ denote

(a) measurement of land

(b) coins of different monetary value

(c) classification of urban land

(d) religious rituals

Answer: (a) measurement of land

Types of Land:

• Various types of land are mentioned in the inscriptions: land under cultivation was usually called Kshetra. Lands not under cultivation were variously called Khila, Aprahata.
  • Kshetra — Cultivable land
  • Khila —Waste land
  • Aprahata — Jungle or waste land
  • Vasti — Habitable land
  • Gapata Saraha — Pastoral land
  • Bhumichhidranyaya — Non agricultural land during the Gupta period.
• The inscriptions give the impression that uncultivated land was being regularly brought under cultivation. Classification of land according to soil, fertility and the use to which it was put was not unknown.
• Different land measures were known in different regions, although one cannot be certain what exact measure was denoted by a term. In some areas Nivartana was the term used for a measure of land whereas in the inscriptions of Bengal terms like Kulyavapa and Dronavapa are used.

Measures of Land

• Texts and inscriptions mention various land measure terms.
• The angula (probably ¾ inch) was the smallest measure.
• The hasta (cubit) is the standardized distance between the tip of the elbow and the middle finger (18 inches).
• Larger units of measure included the dhanu/danda and nala.
• The land measures used in eastern India included the adhavapa (3/8– 1/2 acre), dronavapa (1½–2 acres), and kulyavapa (12–16 acres).
• These were the areas required to sow one adhaka, drona, and kulya of grain respectively.

Q. Who among the following rulers advised his subjects through this inscription?

“Whosoever praises his religious sect or blames other sects out of excessive devotion to his own sect, with the view of glorifying his own sect, he rather injures his own sect very severely.”

(a) Ashoka

(b) Samundragupta

(c) Harshavardhana

(d) Krishanadeva Raya

Answer: (a) Ashoka

Notes:

• The statement “Whosoever praises his religious sect or blames other sects out of excessive devotion to his own sect, with the view of glorifying his own sect, he rather injures his own sect very severely” is a message of religious tolerance and harmony, emphasizing that promoting one’s own religion at the expense of others is ultimately harmful, and was inscribed by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka.

Q. With reference to the history of India, consider the following pairs:

	Famous Place		Present State
1.	Bhilsa	–	Madhya Pradesh
2.	Dwarasamudra	–	Maharashtra
3.	Girinagar	–	Gujarat
4.	Sthanesvara	–	Uttar Pradesh

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 1 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 2 and 4 only

Answer: (a) 1 and 3 only

Notes:

Famous Place	Present State
Bhilsa	Madhya Pradesh
Dwarasamudra	Karnataka
Girnagar	Gujarat
Sthanesvara	Haryana

• Bhilsa is known as Vidisha, the main center of the Sunga dynasty in Madhya Pradesh.
• Dwarasamudra was in Karnataka, as a regal capital of the Hoysalas.
• Girnagar is also known as city-on-the-hills in Junagarh district of Gujarat.
• Sthanesvara is in Haryana. It was here that the Pandavas prayed to Lord Shiva.

Q. With reference to the period of Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura and Chaul were known as

(a) ports handling foreign trade

(b) capitals of powerful kingdoms

(c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture

(d) important of Buddhist pilgrimage centers

Answer: (a) ports handling foreign trade

Notes:

• Ghantasala, Kadura, and Chaul as Ports:
  • During the Gupta dynasty, these towns were well-known ports that played a significant role in foreign trade.
  • Chaul was a prominent port on the western coast of India, facilitating trade with the Roman Empire and other regions.
  • In the Andhra region, ports like Kadura and Ghantasala were actively involved in maritime trade, contributing to the region’s economic prosperity.
  • Hence, the correct answer is ports handling foreign trade.
• Other Notable Ports of the Period:
  • In addition to Ghantasala, Kadura, and Chaul, other significant ancient ports included Kaveripattanam (Puhar) and Tondi in the Pandya region.
  • Merchants from various regions engaged in trade activities at sea ports like Mamallapuram, Arikamedu, Bharuch, Calicut, Lothal, Muziris, and Poompuhar.

Q. With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term ‘paramitas’?

(a) The earliest Dharmashastra texts written in aphoristic (sutra) style

(b) Philosophical schools that did not accept the authority of Vedas

(c) Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path

(d) Powerful merchant guilds of early medieval South India

Answer: (c) Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path

Notes:

• “Paramita” is a Sanskrit term, which means “perfection”. In the context of Buddhist philosophy, ‘paramitas’ refers to the perfections or virtues that a Bodhisattva must cultivate to achieve enlightenment and assist others in attaining the same. 
• The attainment of these perfections is essential for those who aspire to follow the Bodhisattva path. 
• Bodhisattva Path:
  • The Bodhisattva path is a significant concept in Mahayana Buddhism, emphasizing compassion and altruism.
  • It involves the practice of selflessness and the dedication to helping all sentient beings achieve enlightenment.
• List of Paramitas:
  • The six primary paramitas often referenced in Buddhist texts include:
    • Dāna (Generosity): The practice of giving and selflessness.
    • Sīla (Morality): Ethical conduct and moral discipline.
    • Kṣanti (Patience): The ability to endure hardship and remain calm.
    • Vīrya (Diligence): Enthusiastic perseverance in practicing virtue.
    • Dhyāna (Meditation): Focused meditation to develop concentration.
    • Prajñā (Wisdom): Insight into the true nature of reality.
• Cultural Significance:
  • The concept of paramitas not only influences Buddhist thought and practice but also reflects broader themes in Indian philosophy regarding moral and ethical development.

Q. With reference to the cultural history of India, consider the following pairs:

1.	Parivrajaka	–	Renunciant and Wanderer
2.	Shramana	–	Priest with a high status
3.	Upasaka	–	Lay follower of Buddhism

Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 1 and 3 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) 1 and 3 only

Notes:

• The term “Parivrajaka” refers to renunciants and wanderers who left their homes to pursue spiritual goals.
  • They practiced detachment from worldly life, wandering in search of spiritual knowledge.
• “Shramana” refers to ascetics and renouncers in ancient India, including monks and followers of various religious sects like Buddhism, Jainism, and Ajivikas.
  • Shramanas were not necessarily priests with a high status; instead, they were often independent of the Vedic priestly tradition and were known for their ascetic practices.
• “Upasaka” is a term used to describe lay followers of Buddhism who adhere to the teachings of the Buddha but do not take full monastic vows.
  • They support the Buddhist monastic community and practice certain moral precepts in their daily lives.