Crafts Production

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Abundant inscriptions and seals mentioning artisans, merchants, and guilds suggest thriving urban crafts and trade — indeed, crafts production and commercial activity were brisk during the Gupta period itself.
- However, crafts production and commerce perhaps began declining from the Gupta period onward in most regions, which, according to some historians, resulted in the decline of towns and cities, and a greater dependence of society on agricultural production.
Crafts production covered an extremely wide range of items.
- There were items of ordinary domestic use — earthen pots, furniture, baskets, metal tools, and so on.
- At the same time, a wide variety of luxury items — jewellery of gold, silver, and precious stones; ivory objects; fine cotton and silk clothing; and other costly goods — had to be made available to the affluent sections of society.
  - Some of these items were obtained through trade, others manufactured locally.
Gupta-era luxury objects, of which little archaeological trace generally survives, may instead be found described in the literary texts or inscriptions of the period.
- These sources also offer hints about the status of different categories of craftsmen — for instance, varieties of silk cloth called Kshauma and Pattavastra are mentioned in period texts.
- A 5th-century inscription from Mandasor, in western Malwa, refers to a guild of silk weavers who migrated from south Gujarat and settled in Malwa — indicating a decline in trade and commerce.
Texts such as the Amarakosha of Amarasimha and the Brihat Samhita, generally dated to this period, list many such items with their Sanskrit names, along with the categories of craftsmen who produced them.
- Dharmashastra texts refer to partnerships in craft production and trade, and mention the apprenticeship of novices under master craftsmen.
For a clearer picture of the quantity and variety of objects manufactured during this period, one must turn to archaeological reports.
- Sites such as Taxila, Ahichchhatra, Mathura, Rajghat, Kausambi, and Pataliputra in the Ganges Valley, along with sites in other regions, have yielded craft products including earthenware, terracottas, beads of various stones, glass objects, and metal items.
- It appears that, compared with craft production in the preceding Saka-Kushana period, Gupta-period craft production suffered some setback.
Vakataka inscriptions contain several references to artisans, traders, and occupational groups.
- The Indore plates of Pravarasena II mention a merchant (vanijaka) named Chandra, who purchased half a village and donated it to Brahmanas.
- The gifted village of Charmanka, in the Chammak copper plates of Pravarasena II, may have been a settlement of leather workers.
- The Thalner copper plates record the gift of Kamsakaraka and Suvarnakara — villages likely named for bronze workers and goldsmiths, based on their names.
- A goldsmith named Ishvaradatta is recorded as the engraver of the Pattan plates.
- Kallara, mentioned in the Pandhurna plates, and Madhukajjhari, mentioned in the Patna Museum plates, may have been villages of alcohol distillers.
- The inhabitants of Ishtakapalli, mentioned in the Mandhal plates, may have specialised in brickmaking.
- Similarly, places such as Ishtakapalli, Hiranyapura, Lavanatailaka, and Lohanagara appear connected respectively with brickmaking, goldwork, salt manufacture, and iron working.

Metal Working

Metal working is listed in the Kamasutra as one of the 64 arts.
- The Amarakosha lists various metals — gold, silver, iron, copper, brass, and lead — while the Brihaspati Smriti mentions metalworkers dealing in gold, silver, and base metals.
Beyond the many iron objects recovered at archaeological sites, the iron pillar at Mehrauli reflects the high level of metallurgical skill achieved in this period.
- A significant metallurgical development of the age was the manufacture of seals and statues, particularly of the Buddha; contemporary literature also attests to the widespread use of jewellery.

Pottery Making

Pottery remained a basic part of industrial production — though the elegant black-polished ware of earlier periods fell out of use, replaced by an ordinary red ware with a brownish slip, produced in large quantities and sometimes enhanced with mica in the clay for a metallic finish.
Ivory work remained highly valued, as did stone-cutting and carving, given the strong contemporary favour for sculpture.
- The cutting, polishing, and preparation of precious stones — jasper, agate, carnelian, quartz, and lapis lazuli — was likewise associated with foreign trade.

Other Specialised Crafts

Additional specialised crafts of the period included:
- Coin casting
- Metal engraving
- Terracotta work
- Wood carving
Artistic remains point to the existence of architects, builders, stone masons, sculptors, mural painters, and labourers — the Ajanta paintings, for instance, abound in depictions of royal palaces and the mansions of the wealthy.

Cloth Works

The Amarakosha contains several terms connected with cotton textiles — including words for weaver, loom, thread, and coarse and fine fabric.
- Evidence of stitched clothing appears in Indian sculpture from the early centuries CE, and the Ajanta paintings depict elaborate garments, implying the presence of skilled tailors and embroiderers.
The Mandasor inscription refers to the migration and activities of a prosperous guild of silk weavers.

Ornamental and Cosmetic Works

Beautiful ornaments are described in literature and depicted in both sculpture and the Ajanta paintings.
- The Amarakosha lists many types of precious and semi-precious stones, while Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita discusses the qualities of diamonds, rubies, and pearls.
- Ornaments were also fashioned from coral and conch shell.
Descriptions of the life of the nagaraka in the Kamasutra and in kavya literature suggest the existence of garland makers, as well as makers of cosmetics, unguents, and perfumes.

Inequality Among Craftsmen

There were many types of craftsmen, differing considerably in both wealth and social status.
- For instance, there was a vast difference between a goldsmith with a shop in a city like Ujjayini and a family of basket-makers in a village.
This inequality is reflected, to some extent, in the Dharmasastras composed by Brahmanas during this period.
- The Dharmasastras assign different ranks to different groups of craftsmen, though craftsmen and artisans as a whole held a status lower than that of Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas.
- The texts also suggest that each craft group formed its own jati, or caste — for example, the Kumbhakaras (potters) formed one caste, and the Suvarnakaras (goldsmiths) another.
  - Although the caste system was not, in reality, quite so straightforward, the general trend among craftsmen was for practitioners of a single craft to form a distinct jati.
Since not all items were available everywhere, the movement of goods for trade between places continued, as in earlier periods.

Guilds

Certain organisations facilitated the functioning of both craftsmen and traders.
- The ancient term generally used for such organisations was Sreni — often interpreted as “guild,” though scholars offer differing interpretations of the term.
Guilds (nigama, sreni) remained the major institution for both the manufacture of goods and commercial enterprise.
- They remained almost autonomous in their internal organisation, with the government respecting their laws — laws generally drafted by a larger body, the corporation of guilds, of which each individual guild was a member.
- Each guild had a president called Prathama or Pravara; some industrial guilds, such as those of silk weavers, maintained their own separate corporations, responsible for large-scale projects such as temple endowments.
The state was expected to protect guilds and respect their customs and norms, just as guild members were expected to follow the organisation’s own norms — failing which, they were liable to punishment.
- The Narada and Brihaspati Smritis describe the organisation and activities of guilds, mentioning a guild chief and two, three, or five executive officers.
- Guild laws were apparently recorded in written documents; the Brihaspati Smriti notes that guilds meted out justice to their own members, with such decisions generally expected to be approved by the king.
Guilds also engaged in philanthropic activity — for instance, providing shelter for travellers, and building assembly houses, temples, and gardens.
- Certain inscriptions indicate the important role played by the chief of artisan and trader guilds within district-level administrative bodies.
- Seals also record joint corporate bodies of merchant bankers, caravan merchants, and artisans.

Migration of Craft Guilds

The Mandasor inscription refers to the migration and activities of a prosperous guild of silk weavers.
- The Indore copper plate, from the time of Skandagupta, records that a guild of oil men was obligated to supply oil to the Surya temple even if it relocated elsewhere — confirming that the migration of craft guilds was indeed a reality.
Beyond the Mandasor inscription, the flourishing condition of guilds is further evident from inscriptions describing guilds as donors and bankers.
- The Gadhwa inscription, from the time of Chandragupta II, records an investment of 20 dinaras in a guild headed by Matridasa, for the benefit of Brahmanas.
- Two further inscriptions from Gadhwa, from the reign of Kumaragupta I, record investments of 13 and 2 dinaras with two guilds for the maintenance of sattras (almshouses).
- The Indore inscription of Skandagupta records an endowment by the Brahmana Devavishnu, for maintaining a perpetual lamp in a Surya temple at Indore.
  - It notes that the temple was built by two local merchants, Achalavarman and Bhrikunthasimha, and that the endowed money was invested with a guild of oil manufacturers headed by Jivanta, tasked with ensuring a regular oil supply for the temple lamps — even if the guild later migrated elsewhere.

Money Economy

R.S. Sharma has argued that the Gupta and post-Gupta periods saw a decline in the money economy.
- He points out that while the Guptas issued many gold coins, comparatively few silver and copper coins were minted.
- Until recently, it was believed that the Vakatakas issued no coins at all, though some recent finds have dispelled this notion.

Money Lending

Texts of this period discuss money-lending in some detail.
- The Narada Smriti, for instance, refers to money gained through usury as “spotted wealth” and “black wealth,” yet Dharmashastra texts of the time lay down detailed rules on usury, covering:
  - The drawing up of contracts.
  - The role of local custom in fixing interest rates.
  - Various kinds of pledges acceptable as loan security.

Interest Rate

A general rate of 15% per annum is advocated for secured loans.
- Interest rates on unsecured loans were considerably higher, and varied by the borrower’s varna — members of lower varnas being charged higher rates.
- Interest rates also varied by the purpose of the loan: the high rates once demanded during the Mauryan period for overseas-trade loans were no longer applied, reflecting greater confidence in overseas trade, while the general lowering of interest rates also points to greater availability of goods and correspondingly lower profit margins.
The Brihaspati Smriti states that when immovable property such as land has been enjoyed and has yielded more than the original principal, the debtor should automatically recover the pledge.
- The consequences of defaulting on a loan were said to follow the debtor into his next life — the Narada Smriti asserts that a defaulter would be born a slave in his creditor’s household, to repay the debt through labour.
This detailed discussion of money-lending — including references to joint money-lending enterprises — clearly points to a context in which money was actively used, borrowed, and lent for profit.

Trade

India maintained extensive trade links with Central, West, and Southeast Asia, and with the Roman world, in the preceding period, with trade routes connecting different regions within the country having developed over centuries.
- Commercial activity clearly continued through the Gupta period — its prosperity representing the concluding phase of an economic momentum begun earlier.
Like their Kushana predecessors, the Gupta rulers minted coins of various types, with Gupta gold coins displaying excellent craftsmanship.
- The Guptas also issued coins in copper, silver, and lead, used for commercial exchange; by this time, the Buddhist Sangha was wealthy enough to participate in commercial activity itself.
In some regions of the Gupta empire, merchants held a high social position.
- For example, two categories of merchant representatives — the Nagarasresthi and Sarthavaha — were associated with district administration in north Bengal.
- Gupta-period seals found at Vaisali, in north Bihar, suggest merchants formed an important section of that city’s population.
- The Faridpur plate of Gopachandra appears to refer to major traders (pradhana-vyaparinah).
Literary texts of the period show brisk commercial activity in cities such as Pataliputra and Ujjayini, with people from different countries present, and merchants forming important communities there.
- Texts mention rules for hiring conveyances — bullock carts, boats, and pack animals — along with rules governing the return of sold goods, the protection of the interests of traders and consumers, and punishments for adulteration and non-delivery of goods.
As in earlier periods, two types of merchants are recorded in Gupta times: the Sresthi, typically settled in one place and enjoying an eminent position, and the Sarthavaha, a caravan trader.
- The Narada and Brihaspati Smritis laid down extensive regulations governing trade practices of the time.
Internal trade covered everyday commodities sold chiefly in village and town markets, while luxury goods formed the principal articles of long-distance trade.
- Compared to the earlier period, long-distance trade declined, for several reasons:
  - Silk and spices were the chief Indian exports in Indo-Roman trade, but by the mid-6th century, silkworms were secretly smuggled overland from China into the Byzantine Empire, adversely affecting India’s trade with the west.
  - The later expansion of the Arabs under the banner of Islam may have further disrupted this trade.
  - Indian merchants increasingly relied on Southeast Asian trade instead, establishing trading stations there — diverting income away from western routes.
The account of Cosmas mentions several ports on India’s western coast, including Calliena (Kalyan), Sibor (Chaul), and the markets of Male (Malabar), Parti, Mangarouth (Mangalore), Solapatana, Nalopatana (Nelcynda), and Pandopatana.
- Faxian refers to Tamralipti in Bengal as an important eastern-coast trading centre.
- These ports and towns connected with Persia, Arabia, and Byzantium on one side, and Sri Lanka, China, and Southeast Asia on the other.

Trade with China

Faxian describes the perils of the sea route between India and China.
- Monks travelling from India to China by the land route via Central Asia likely followed established caravan-trader routes.
Chinese sources mention Indian exports such as rare gems, pearls, fine textiles (probably muslin), saffron, pepper, and other spices and aromatics.

Silk

Despite indigenous silk manufacture, India continued to import silk yarn and cloth from China, playing an important role in the trade networks carrying Chinese silk onward to the Mediterranean world.
- The continuing demand for Chinese silk in India arose because Indian artisans produced silk only from the cocoons of wild silkworms.
  - The techniques of raising mulberry silk cocoons and unravelling thread from boiled cocoons remained unknown in India until introduced by Central Asian immigrants in the 13th century.
- Indian silk was consequently neither as soft nor as shiny as Chinese silk — and although Indian cotton textiles were widely exported, Indian silk was never a major export item in ancient times.
  - The silk that did leave Indian shores was likely re-exported Chinese silk.
Even after later technical innovations in Indian silk production during the medieval period, Chinese silk remained a much sought-after luxury item, figuring among the gifts exchanged by Chinese emperors with foreign embassies.
- Kalidasa refers to wealthy individuals wearing garments of chinamshuka (Chinese silk).

Connection with Southeast Asia

Kingdoms emerged across the 1st millennium CE in areas such as Java, Sumatra, and Bali, with maritime trade forming an important part of the region’s economic life.
- Sanskrit inscriptions appeared across mainland and peninsular Southeast Asia by around 500 CE, and the genealogies of early local kings often traced their ancestry back to India.
  - According to traditional histories of Myanmar, the earliest kingdom of the Irrawaddy valley was founded by a dispossessed Indian prince.
  - Cambodian tradition tells of a Brahmana named Kaundinya, who married a Cambodian princess.
  - A 9th-century inscription from Dong Duong claims that the rulers of that region descended from the sage Bhrigu of the Mahabharata.
Over the course of the 1st millennium, Buddhist and Hindu sculpture and architecture appeared across these regions.
- Yupa inscriptions and gold images of the Buddha and Vishnu have been found at Kutei, in Borneo, while the Buddhist art of the Andhra region influenced sculptural styles across Indo-China.
The ports of South India played a pivotal role in trade with Southeast Asia and China — the Tamil epics themselves are set in cities such as Madurai, Kaveripumpattinam (Kaveripattinam), Vanji, and Kanchipuram.

Silappadikaram

In the Silappadikaram, Manaikan, father of Kannaki, is depicted as a ship’s captain residing in the great river port of Puhar; Kovalan was the son of a caravan trader.
The text mentions a street of cloth merchants at Madurai, stocked with piles of cloth woven from cotton, hair, or silk, while weavers (karukas) brought fine silk and cotton and woollen textiles to the markets of Kaveripattinam.
- The Silappadikaram also refers to yavana craftsmen in cities, to yavanas living in their own separate quarters in Puhar, and to Tamil kings employing yavana guards to protect their fortress gates.
Cotton cloth was another key southern export — the text mentions 32 varieties of cotton fabric, and refers to kings dispatching vessels loaded with eaglewood, silk, sandalwood, spices, and camphor during the early cool season.

Manimekalai

The Manimekalai contains stories of merchants undertaking sea voyages to Sri Lanka and Java.
- In the Jatakas, “Manimekalai” is in fact the name of a goddess who protects and rescues seamen.
- The epics further describe the lavish lifestyle of Indian merchants.
Spices such as pepper and cardamom continued to be produced and exported from the Kerala region, though with rising demand, these were also imported from Southeast Asia and re-exported westward.
- Evidence of this coastal trade connects with flourishing settlements off the coast of Sri Lanka, such as Mantai in the north, and Kirinda and Godavaya in the south.

Decline of Trade in the Gupta and Post-Gupta Period

One of the most conspicuous economic changes of the Gupta and post-Gupta period was the decline of trade — both internal and external.

Decline in Foreign Trade

Indian foreign trade peaked during the post-Mauryan period, when India traded actively with the Roman Empire, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia.
- Commercial decline set in during the Gupta period, becoming more pronounced by the mid-6th century CE.
The inflow of Roman coins into India ceased after the early centuries of the Christian era, and other evidence of contact with the western world is similarly absent.
- The Roman Empire itself later broke apart, and the rise of the Arabs and Persians as trade competitors did not favour Indian merchants.
- Some Byzantine coins, dating up to the 6th century, have been found in Andhra and Karnataka, though these cannot numerically compare to the rich hoards of earlier Roman coins.
Silk and spices were important commodities in Indo-Byzantine trade, but once Byzantium learned the art of silk-worm cultivation by the mid-6th century CE, the silk trade was badly affected.
- The migration of silk weavers from Gujarat to other occupations takes on added meaning in this context.
Gupta ties with Central Asia were similarly weak, and whatever contact remained with Central and Western Asia was wiped out entirely by the Huna invasions.
- Coastal Indian towns are said to have carried on some trade with Southeast Asia and China, though this interaction does not appear to have been particularly intense.
  - While there is evidence of cultural influence spreading from India to Southeast Asia in this period, there is no supporting evidence of pottery, coins, or similar objects to suggest robust commercial interaction.
- Earlier Indian trade in beads and similar items with parts of Southeast Asia shows no evidence of continuing after the 4th century CE.
Little can be concluded from India’s diplomatic missions to China, which show a declining trend from the 6th century onward.
- Reported Chinese coins and celadon ware found in Tamil Nadu date only to the 9th century or later, with no earlier material evidence pointing to sustained Indo-Chinese trade.

Decline in Long-Distance Internal Trade

Long-distance internal trade also suffered, owing to weakening links between coastal towns and the interior, and between towns and villages more generally.
- The decay of towns and shrinking urban commodity production were closely related to this broader decline in trade.
- The declining status of traders and merchants in society during this period likewise points to the falling fortunes of trade and commerce.
The rise of numerous self-sufficient units, dominated by landed beneficiaries, further harmed trade.
- The later work Kathasaritsagara suggests that traders moved through forests specifically to avoid multiple toll payments.
- Sea voyages and long-distance travel came to be viewed as taboo — attitudes that certainly did nothing to encourage trade.
Trade in basic necessities, such as salt and iron artefacts, nonetheless continued, since these essential commodities were not universally available.
- Some long-distance trade also persisted in prestigious luxury goods — precious stones, ivory, and horses — for which demand remained strong among the aristocracy, chiefs, and kings.
It thus appears that, for several centuries, large-scale, organised trade was gradually replaced by itinerant petty traders, peddlers, and a trickle trade.