Q. With reference to the economic history of medieval India, the term ‘Araghatta’ refers to

(a) bonded labour

(b) land grants made to military officers

(c) waterwheel used in the irrigation of land

(d) wasteland converted to cultivated land

Answer: (c) waterwheel used in the irrigation of land

Notes:
  • In the economic history of medieval India, “Araghatta” refers to the waterwheel, or Persian wheel, used for irrigation purposes.
  • Araghatta is a mechanical device, a type of waterwheel, used to lift water, typically from wells, for irrigating fields.

Q. With reference to the cultural history of India, the memorizing of chronicles, dynastic histories and epic tales was the profession of who of the following?

(a) Shramana

(b) Parivraajaka

(c) Agrahaarika

(d) Maagadha

Answer: (d) Maagadha

Notes:
  • In the cultural history of India, the memorizing and recitation of chronicles, dynastic histories, and epic tales was the profession of the Magadha and Sutas. Magadha and Sutas were descendants of priestly families of the Vedic period.
  • Agraharika” was a person who oversaw or managed lands or villages (Agrahara) that were granted to Brahmins as endowments, either for their subsistence, settlement, or religious purposes.
  • “Parivrajaka” refers to a wandering ascetic or renunciant, someone who has left their home and worldly attachments to pursue spiritual goals through detachment and wandering.
  • Shramana is one who renounces the world and leads an ascetic life for the purpose of spiritual development and liberation.
    • Shramana is a wandering monk in certain ascetic traditions of ancient India including Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvikism. Famous śramaṇas include Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.

Q. Regarding the taxation system of Krishna Deva, the ruler of Vijayanagar, consider the following statements:

  1. The tax rate on land was fixed depending on the quality of the land.
  2. Private owners of workshops paid an industries tax.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2

Notes:
  • Vijayanagara rulers followed an oppressive taxation policy.
  • The prosperity of the empire can be explained through their taxation principles.
  • The land tax was the major source of revenue during the period of the Vijayanagar kingdom.
  • During the reign of Krishna Devaraya the rate was fixed between one third and one-sixth depending on the quality of the land.
  • Besides land tax, there were also taxes imposed on shopkeepers, farm servants, workmen, posters, shoemakers, musicians etc.
  • Grazing and house taxes were also imposed.
  • Commercial taxes consisting of levies, duties and customs on manufactured articles of trade were also levied.
  • Private owners of workshops also paid an industry tax.
Land and income rights:
  • Rice was the staple crop. Both black and white variety of rice, gram and pulses, spices (specially black pepper) coconut and betel-nuts were important items of production.
  • Land-revenue was the major source of state’s income:
    • Rate of revenue demand varied in different parts of the empire and in the same locality itself according to the fertility and regional location of the land.
    • It was generally 1/6th of the produce, but in some cases it was even more ranging up to 1/4th.
      • But on Brahmans and temples it was 1/20th to 1/30th respectively.
    • According to an inscription, the rates of taxes were as follows:
      • One-third of the produce of kuruvai (a type of rice) during winter.
      • One-fourth of seasame, ragi, horsegram, etc.
      • One-sixth of millet and other crops cultivated on dry land.
    • Thus, the rate varied according to the type of crops, soil, method of irrigation, etc.
    • It was payable both in cash and kind.
  • We find references to three major categories of land tenure which indicate the way in which the village income was distributed.
    • Bhandaravada:
      • The bhandarvada was a crown village comprising the smallest category.
      • A part of its income was utilised to maintain the Vijaynagar forts.
    • Manya.
      • Income from the manya (tax-free) villages was used to maintain the Brahmans, temples, and mathas.
      • The manya rights underwent a transformation during this period.
      • Land tenures continued to be given by the state to individual (ekabhogan) Brahmans and groups of Brahmans as well as to mathas including the non- Brahman Saiva Siddhanta and Vaishnava gurus.
      • But there was a great increase in devadana grants (conferred on temples) made by the state as compared to other grants.
    • Amara:
      • The largest category was of the amara villages given by the Vijaynagar rulers to the amaranayakas.
      • Their holders did not possess proprietary rights in land but enjoyed -privileges over its income only.
      • The amara tenure was primarily residual in the sense that its income was distributed after deductions had been made for support of the Brahmans and forts.
      • Three-quarters of all the villages came under this category.
      • The term amaramakni is considered by most historians as referring to an ‘estate’ or a ‘fief, but it literally means one-sixteenth share (makani). Thus, it points to the fact that the amaranayakas could claim only a limited share of village income.
  • Other taxes:
    • Besides land-tax, many professional taxes also were imposed. These were on shopkeepers, farm-servants, shepherds, washermen, potters, shoemakers, musicians etc.
    • There was also tax on property, grazing and house taxes were also imposed.
    • Villagers were also supposed to pay for the maintenance of the village officers.
    • Sthala dayam, mara dayam and manula dayam were three major transit dues.
    • Other taxes:
      • tax on sale of produce,
      • military contribution (in times of distress),
      • tax on marriage, etc.
  • Another category of land right through which income was derived was a result of investment in irrigation. It was called dasavanda in Tamil country; and Kathu-Kodage in Andhra and Karnataka.
    • As village self-rule declined, there was the growth of a class of locally powerful people who used their position for developing agriculture by providing additional irrigation facilities for which an extra charge was made.
      • Many temples, which enjoyed rent-free villages, also used their resources for this purpose.
    • Usually undertaken in semi-dry areas where hydrographic and topographic features were conducive for carrying out developmental projects.
    • The dasavanda or Kattu-Kodage was a share in the increased productivity of the land earned by the person who undertake such developmental work.
    • A portion of income accruing from the increased productivity also went to the cultivators of the village where the developmental work was undertaken.
    • This right to income was personal and transferable.

Q. Banjaras during the medieval period of Indian history were generally

(a) agriculturists

(b) warriors

(c) weavers

(d) traders

Answer: (d) traders

Notes:
  • During the medieval period of Indian history, Banjaras were primarily traders and transporters of goods, moving in caravans and trading in various commodities like salt, grains, and firewood.
  • Banjaras played a great role during the period of Alauddin Khalji. Alauddin Khalji used the Banjaras to transport grain to the city markets.
    • Banjaras were transporters of goods from one place to another
  • Emperor Jahangir wrote in his memoirs that the Banjaras carried grain on their bullocks from different areas and sold it in towns.