Q. Which one of the following is a work attributed to playwright Bhasha?

(a) Kavyalankara

(b) Natyashastra

(c) Madhyama-vyayoga

(d) Mahabhashya

Answer: (c) Madhyama-vyayoga

Notes:
  • Kavyalankara is a work on poetics attributed to the scholar Bhamaha.
  • Natyashastra is an ancient Indian treatise on the performing arts, attributed to Bharata Muni.
    • Its many chapters contain detailed treatments of all the diverse arts that are embodied in the classical Indian concept of the drama, including dance, music, poetics, and general aesthetics.
    • It is also known as the fifth veda as it has been evolved by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda, gestures from the Yajurveda and emotions from the Atharvaveda.
  • Madhyama-vyayoga play is one of the thirteen plays traditionally attributed to Bhasa. It is a one-act play (vyayoga) that depicts a story from the Mahabharata, focusing on the reunion of the Pandava brothers.
  • Mahabhashya is a commentary on Panini’s grammar, attributed to Patanjali.
Bhasa:
  • Bhasa is one of the earliest known Sanskrit dramatists, often referred to as the “Shakespeare of Sanskrit drama”.
  • His works were rediscovered in 1912 by the Indian scholar Ganapati Shastri, who found 13 plays attributed to him.
  • Bhasa’s plays are known for their rich storytelling, complex characters, and incorporation of mythological and heroic themes from Indian epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana.
  • Themes and Style:
    • Bhasa’s plays cover a wide range of themes including love, valor, duty, and morality.
    • His characters often embody complex human emotions and dilemmas, making his works timeless and relatable.
    • Bhasa deviated from the accepted dramaturgy of his time by portraying battle scenes and killings on stage, which was unconventional.
  • Influence and Legacy:
    • Bhasa’s influence is evident in the works of later dramatists like Kalidasa and Bhavabhuti, who built upon his literary motifs.
    • His plays continue to be staged and adapted, showcasing their enduring appeal and relevance.
  • Notable Works:
    • Swapnavasavadatta: A tale of love and sacrifice, considered one of his most celebrated works.
    • Madhyama-vyayoga: Focuses on the reunion of Bhima and Ghatotkacha.
    • Karnabharam: Depicts the burden of Karna from the Mahabharata.
    • Urubhanga: Focuses on the broken thigh of Duryodhana from the Mahabharata.
    • “Carudatta” is also known as “Mrcchakatika: ” It paints a detailed picture of urban life in ancient India, incorporating elements of romance, adventure, and social commentary.
Bhamaha:
  • Bhamaha was a Sanskrit poetician believed to be contemporaneous with Daṇḍin.
  • He is noted for writing a work called the Kavyalankara (“The ornaments of poetry”).
  • Bhamaha was apparently from Kashmir.
  • The Kāvyālaṃkāra has, however, been widely recognised as similar to and in many ways in disagreement with the Kāvyādarśa by Daṇḍin.
Patanjali
  • Patanjali also called Gonardiya or Gonikaputra) was the name of one or more author(s), mystic(s) and philosopher(s) in ancient India.
  • His name is recorded as an author and compiler of a number of Sanskrit works. The greatest of these are the Yoga Sutras, a classical yoga text.
  • Estimates based on analysis of this work suggests that its author(s) may have lived between the 2nd century BCE and the 5th century CE.
  • Among the more significant authors who go by the name, Patanjali are:
    • The creator of the Mahabhaṣya, a classic work on Sanskrit linguistics and grammar that was based on Panini’s Aṣṭadhyayi.
    • The author of the Yoga Sutras, a book on the philosophy and practice of yoga, and a renowned expert in Hindu philosophy from the Samkhya school.
    • The creator of Patanjalatantra, a medicinal book.
      • Many mediaeval publications on health sciences acknowledge him and this treatise, and Patanjali is referred to as a medical authority in a number of Sanskrit texts, including Yogaratnakara, Yogaratnasamuccaya, and Padarthavijnana. A fourth Hindu scholar by the name of Patanjali, who most likely lived in the eighth century CE, authored the Carakavarttika, a commentary on the Charaka Samhita. Some contemporary Indian historians, like P.V. Sharma, contend that the two medical scholars who share the name Patanjali may actually be the same person, but they are unrelated to the Patanjali who penned the Mahabhashya grammar masterpiece.
    • One of the 18 siddhars in Tamil Siddha (Shaiva) tradition is Patanjali.

Q. Sanghabhuti, an Indian Buddhist monk, who travelled to China at the end of the fourth century AD, was the author of a commentary on:

(a) Prajnaparamita Sutra

(b) Visuddhimagga

(c) Sarvastivada Vinaya Sain

(d) Lalitavistara

Answer: (c) Sarvastivada Vinaya Sain

Notes:
  • Sanghabhuti:
    • Sanghabhuti was a prominent Indian Buddhist monk who traveled to China in the late 4th century AD.
    • He is known for his commentary on the Sarvastivada Vinaya. This text outlines the monastic code of conduct for the Sarvastivada school of Buddhism.
    • His journey to China marked a significant event in the exchange of Buddhist knowledge and practices between India and China.
  • Prajnaparamita Sutra:
    • This Mahayana Buddhist text focuses on the concept of Prajna (wisdom). While Sanghabhuti might have been familiar with this text, there’s no historical evidence linking him specifically to a commentary on it.
  • Visuddhimagga: 
    • This Theravada Buddhist text focuses on the path to liberation. It’s unlikely that Sanghabhuti, associated with the Mahayana tradition, would have written a commentary on a Theravada text.
  • Lalitavistara: 
    • This Mahayana Buddhist text elaborates on the life of Buddha. Similar to the Prajnaparamita Sutra, there’s no specific link between Sanghabhuti and a commentary on this text.

Q. With reference to ancient India, Gautama Buddha was generally known by which of the following epithets?

  1. Nayaputta
  2. Shakyamuni
  3. Tathagata

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None of the above are epithets of Gautama Buddha

Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only

Notes:
  • Nayaputta (Leader of Men): This is not a commonly used epithet for Gautama Buddha. While Buddha’s teachings aimed to guide people towards enlightenment, “Nayaputta” is not a widely recognized title associated with him.
  • Shakyamuni (Sage of the Shakyas): This is a valid epithet for Gautama Buddha. “Shakya” refers to his clan, and “muni” means sage or wise one. So, Shakyamuni translates to “Sage of the Shakyas.”
  • Tathagata (Thus-gone, Thus-come): This is another well-known epithet for Gautama Buddha. It signifies his unique status as an enlightened being who has transcended the cycle of rebirth and attained Nirvana.
Prominent epithets of Gautama Buddha:
  • Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, is revered by millions around the world.  Beyond his personal name, Siddhartha Gautama, he is also known by a multitude of epithets, each highlighting a specific aspect of his enlightenment, qualities, or role. Here’s a detailed exploration of some of the most prominent epithets of Gautama Buddha:
    • Tathāgata (Thus-gone, Thus-come): This is a profound epithet signifying the Buddha’s unique status. “Tatha” means “thus,” and “gata” means “gone” or “come.”  It implies the Buddha’s journey beyond the cycle of rebirth (samsara) and his return to share his wisdom with the world.
    • Samyak-SamBuddha (Perfectly Self-Awakened One): This epithet emphasizes the Buddha’s complete and independent awakening. “Samyak” means “perfect,” and “Buddha” translates to “awakened one.”  It signifies his attainment of complete enlightenment through his own efforts and realization of the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path.
    • Bhagavan (The Blessed One): This epithet highlights the immense fortune and blessings associated with the Buddha.  “Bhaga” signifies fortune, prosperity, or sacredness.  It reflects the immense benefit his teachings bring to those who follow them.
    • Sugata (Well-gone, Well-spoken): This epithet emphasizes the Buddha’s exemplary conduct and communication skills.  “Su” means “good” or “well,” and “gata” can also imply “gone” in the sense of living a righteous life.   It signifies the Buddha’s impeccable behavior and his ability to articulate profound truths in an accessible way.
    • Lokavidu (Knower of the Worlds): This epithet reflects the Buddha’s vast knowledge and understanding of the cosmos, including the realms beyond our immediate experience.
    • Shakyamuni (Sage of the Shakyas): This epithet identifies the Buddha with his clan, the Shakyas. “Shakya” refers to his lineage, and “muni” means “sage” or “wise one.”  It signifies his origin and his role as a wise teacher born within a particular social group.
    • Arhat (The Worthy One):  This epithet emphasizes the Buddha’s liberation from suffering and his worthiness of respect and veneration.
    • Jina (The Victor): This epithet highlights the Buddha’s victory over ignorance, craving, and other defilements that cause suffering.

Q. Consider the following information:

Archaeological Site State Description
1.Chandraketugarh Odisha Trading Port town
2. Inamgaon Maharashtra Chalcolithic site
3.MangaduKeralaMegalithic site
4. SalihundamAndhra PradeshRock-cut shrines

In which of the above rows is the given information correctly matched ?

(a) 1 and 2
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 3 and 4
(d) 1 and 4

Answer: (b) 2 and 3

Notes:
  • Chandraketugarh is an ancient archaeological site located in the state of West Bengal. According to historians, the place dates to the 3rd century, which is the pre-Mauryan era. It was a significant port city known for its trade during the early historic period.
  • Inamgaon is an important Chalcolithic site located in Maharashtra, near the Ghod River (a tributary of the Bhima). It provides significant insights into the lives of people during the Chalcolithic period.
  • Mangadu in Kerala is known as a newly discovered prehistoric site. This location has revealed numerous megalithic structures dated approximately between 1000 B.C. and 100 B.C. This discovery enriches Kerala’s archaeological landscape, adding to its array of megalithic sites, such as the Edakkal Caves and Marayoor Dolmens.
  • Salihundam is an archaeological site in Andhra Pradesh, but it is known for its Buddhist stupas, viharas, and other remains, not rock-cut cave shrines.
Some Major Archaeological Site’s  in India: 

North India

  • Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, Indus Valley Civilization (Punjab, Pakistan and Haryana, India): These are the two most extensively excavated urban centers of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, dating back to 3300-1300 BCE.
  • Dholavira, Indus Valley Civilization (Gujarat): This lesser-known site was a flourishing center of the Harappan civilization, boasting water reservoirs and impressive town planning.
  • Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh: Once a prominent center of Buddhism, Sarnath is where Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. The site features stupas, monasteries, and pillars.
  • Khajuraho, Madhya Pradesh: Renowned for its intricately carved temples dedicated to Hinduism and Jainism, Khajuraho is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The erotic sculptures on some of the temples are a source of fascination and debate.
  • Agra, Uttar Pradesh: Home to the iconic Taj Mahal, a white marble mausoleum built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, Agra offers a glimpse into Mughal era architecture.

South India 

  • Hampi, Karnataka: The former capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with ruins of palaces, temples, and other structures spread over a vast area.
  • Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu: Renowned for its monolithic shore temples carved from granite, Mahabalipuram is a testament to Pallava dynasty’s architectural prowess.
  • Meenakshi Temple, Madurai, Tamil Nadu: A colorful and intricately designed temple complex dedicated to Parvati, the consort of Shiva, the Meenakshi Temple is a vibrant landmark.
  • Badami, Karnataka: Located amidst picturesque red sandstone cliffs, Badami was the capital of the Chalukya dynasty. The site features cave temples with remarkable sculptures.
  • Ajanta and Ellora Caves, Maharashtra: These UNESCO World Heritage Sites house breathtaking cave temples and monasteries adorned with sculptures and paintings depicting Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain themes.

East India

  • Konark Sun Temple, Odisha: A UNESCO World Heritage Site, the Konark Sun Temple is an architectural marvel dedicated to the Sun god Surya. The temple is shaped like a giant chariot
  • Mahabodhi Temple, Bodh Gaya, Bihar: A UNESCO World Heritage Site, Mahabodhi Temple is believed to be the place where Gautama Buddha attained enlightenment. The Mahabodhi tree, under which the Buddha meditated, is a significant pilgrimage site.
  • Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar: Nalanda was a renowned ancient university and monastic complex, a center for Buddhist learning from the 5th to 12th centuries CE.

West India

  • Lothal, Gujarat: A significant Indus Valley Civilization port city, Lothal is known for its well-preserved dockyard, suggesting a flourishing maritime trade network.
  • Dholavira, Gujarat: As mentioned earlier, Dholavira was a flourishing center of the Harappan civilization.
  • Elephanta Caves, Maharashtra: Located on an island near Mumbai, these rock-cut cave temples contain sculptures dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva.

Q. Consider the following statements:

  1. There are no parables in Upanishads.
  2. Upanishads were composed earlier than the Puranas.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (b) 2 only

Notes:
  • Upanishads contain Parables:
    • The Upanishads, while primarily philosophical treatises, do incorporate parables or illustrative stories to explain complex concepts.
    • These parables help convey deeper meanings in a way that resonates with listeners.
    • For example, the parable of the blind men and the elephant describes how different people perceive reality based on their limited perspectives.
  • Upanishads predate Puranas:
    •  The Upanishads are generally considered to be older than the Puranas.
    • The Upanishads originated between 800 BCE and 400 BCE, while the Puranas are estimated to have been composed between 300 BCE and 1200 CE.
    • The Upanishads represent the culmination of the Vedic period’s philosophical thought, whereas the Puranas emerged during the later Hinduism period, often incorporating and elaborating upon concepts introduced in the Upanishads.

Q. Which one of the following was the latest inclusion in the Intangible Cultural Heritage List of UNESCO?

(a) Chhau dance

(b) Durga puja

(c) Garba dance

(d) Kumbh mela

Answer: (c) Garba dance

Notes:
  • Garba dance was nominated by India for inclusion on the UNESCO list. Since the date we’re considering is June 2024, Garba is the most likely recent addition.
    • Garba, a vibrant folk dance originating from Gujarat, India
  • Chhau Dance (Inscribed in 2010):  A masked martial dance form traditionally performed by men. It depicts themes of war, heroism, and mythology.
    • Three distinct styles exist: Seraikella Chhau (Odisha), Purulia Chhau (West Bengal), and Mayurbhanj Chhau (Odisha).
  • Durga Puja (Inscribed in 2021):  A ten-day festival celebrating Durga, the Hindu goddess of power and protection.
    • It culminates in the immersion of clay idols of Durga, her children, and other deities in rivers or ponds.
  • Kumbh Mela (Inscribed in 2017): A massive Hindu pilgrimage and festival, considered the largest religious gathering in the world. 
    • It occurs every 3-6 years at each location, with the Maha Kumbh Mela (grand Kumbh Mela) happening every 12 years at Prayagraj. Devotees take ritual baths in the holy rivers associated with each location, seeking spiritual cleansing and blessings.
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage

Q. Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:

  1. Shantiniketan
  2. Rani-ki-Vav
  3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas
  4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya

How many of the above properties were included in 2023?

(a) Only one
(b) Only two
(c) Only three
(d) All four

Answer: (b) Only two

Notes:

UNESCO Year in which World Heritage included in UNESCO.

  1. Shantiniketan – 2023.
  2. Rani-ki-Vav – 2018.
  3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas – 2023.
  4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya 2002.