UPSC Prelims Research: Ancient History & Art and Culture 2016

Q. In the context of the history of India, consider the following pairs:

Term     —        Description

1. Eripatti    –   Land, revenue from which was set apart for the maintenance of the village tank
2. Taniyurs   –  Villages donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins
3. Ghatikas   – Colleges generally attached to the temples

Which of the pairs given above correctly matched?

(a) 1 and 2
(b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3

Answer: (d) 1 and 3

Notes:

• A Ghatika was a centre of learning including religion and was small in size while an Agrahara was a bigger institution.
  • Ghatikas were institutions mostly attached to temples.
• Taniyurs was a large village and were distinct revenue units under Cholas.
  • Villages donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins are known as Brahmadeya.
  • Ur: It was the general assembly of the village where local residents discussed their matters without any formal rule or procedure.The Ur consisted of the tax-paying residents of an ordinary village.
• Eripatti was Tank lands i.e land donated by individuals, the revenue from which was set apart for the maintenance of’ the village tank.

Q. With reference to the cultural history of India, the memorizing of chronicles, dynastic histories and epic tales was the profession of who of the following?

(a) Shramana

(b) Parivrajaka

(c) Agrahaarika

(d) Maagadha

Answer: (d) Maagadha

Notes:

• In the cultural history of India, the memorizing and recitation of chronicles, dynastic histories, and epic tales was the profession of the Magadha and Sutas. Magadha and Sutas were descendants of priestly families of the Vedic period.
• Agraharika” was a person who oversaw or managed lands or villages (Agrahara) that were granted to Brahmins as endowments, either for their subsistence, settlement, or religious purposes.
• “Parivrajaka” refers to a wandering ascetic or renunciant, someone who has left their home and worldly attachments to pursue spiritual goals through detachment and wandering.
• Shramana is one who renounces the world and leads an ascetic life for the purpose of spiritual development and liberation.
  • Shramana is a wandering monk in certain ascetic traditions of ancient India including Jainism, Buddhism, and Ājīvikism. Famous śramaṇas include Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.

Q. Who of the following had first deciphered the edicts of Emperor Ashoka?

(a) Georg Buhler

(b) James Prinsep

(c) Max Muller

(d) William Jones

Answer: (b) James Prinsep

James Prinsep:

• James Princep was a European scholar who deciphered the edicts of the Ashoka.
• He was an English scholar, orientalist, and antiquarian.
• He was the founding editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
• He is best remembered for his understanding of the Kharosthi and Brahmi scripts of ancient India.

Georg Bühler:

• Professor Johann Georg Bühler was a German scholar of ancient Indian languages and law.
• Bühler’s contributions to Indology still serve as an important cultural link between India and the German-speaking world.
• He significantly contributed to the understanding of India through his extensive work in Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit languages, as well as his collection of manuscripts and decipherment of inscriptions, particularly focusing on Dharmaśāstra, Jainism, and Sanskrit literature.

Max Müller:

• Friedrich Max Müller was a German-born British comparative philologist and Orientalist.
• The renowned Sanskritist Max Mueller committed his whole life to the study of Indian languages and scriptures, with an unwavering focus on Sanskrit literature.

Sir William Jones:

• Sir William Jones is significant for his role as a judge, linguist, and founder of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, which promoted the study of ancient Indian languages and culture, including his famous Third Discourse proposing a common origin for Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin.
  • He is particularly known for his proposition of the existence of a relationship among European and Indo-Aryan languages, which he coined as Indo-European.
• His linguistic studies:
  • Jones’ was the first to suggest that Sanskrit, Greek and Latin languages had a common root and that indeed they may all be further related, in turn, to Gothic and the Celtic languages, as well as to Persian.
  • He also suggested that Sanskrit ‘was introduced to India by conquerors from other kingdoms in some very remote age’ displacing ‘the pure Hindi’ of north India
  • His claim rested on the evidence of several Sanskrit words that had similarities with Greek and Latin.

Q. Which one of the following books of ancient India has the love story of the son of the founder of Sunga dynasty?

(a) Swapnavasavadatta

(b) Malavikagnimitra

(c) Meghadoota

(d) Ratnavali

Answer: (b) Malavikagnimitra

Notes:

• Malavikagnimitra:
  • It is the Sanskrit play written by Kalidasa in the 5th-century CE.
  • It narrates the love story of King Agnimitra, the Shunga Emperor at Vidisha.
  • Agnimitra was the son of Pushyamitra Shunga, founder of the Sunga dynasty.
  • Kalidasa is the most distinguished dramatist and he treated the rasa of love in all its possible manifestations.
• Svapnavasavadattam is a Sanskrit play of six acts written by Bhasa.
  • The plot of the drama is drawn from the romantic narratives about the kaushambi king Udayana and Vasavadatta, the daughter of Pradyota, the ruler of Avanti, which were current in the poet’s time and which seem to have captivated popular imagination.
  • The main theme of the drama is the sorrow of Udayana for his queen Vasavadatta, believed by him to have perished in a fire, which was actually a rumour spread by Yaugandharayana, a minister of Udayana to compel his king to marry Padmavati, the daughter of the king of Magadha.
  • It forms, in context, a continuation of his another drama, Pratijnayaugandharayana.
• Meghadoota is a Sanskrit poem by Kalidasa.
  • It describes how a yakṣa (or nature spirit), who had been banished by his master to a remote region for a year, asked a cloud to take a message of love to his wife.
• Ratnavali is a Sanskrit drama about a princess Ratnavali, and a king Udayana, written by Harshvardhana. 
  • It tells the story of King Udayana and Princess Ratnavali, whose love story unfolds amidst palace intrigues and the intervention of loyal advisors, ultimately leading to their marriage.
• Yoga Sutras and Mahabhashya:
  • Patanjali, a revered figure in yoga and Sanskrit grammar, is known for both the Yoga Sutras, a foundational text for yoga philosophy, and the Mahabhashya, a commentary on Sanskrit grammar.
  • Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras and Mahabhashya were composed in the Shunga Empire period.

Q. With reference to the cultural history of medieval India, consider the following statements:

1. Siddhas (Sittars) of Tamil region were monotheistic and condemned idolatry.
2. Lingayats of Kannada region questioned the theory of rebirth and rejected the caste hierarchy.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (c) Both 1 and 2

Notes:

• Almost all the Siddhas believed in the oneness of all creation i.e monotheism and they preached a philosophy of love and service and condemned idolatry.
  • ​Almost all of the ‘Siddhas’ songs were composed in the twilight language.
  • Siddhas worship Shiva and Shakti in their benign, ascetic and fierce forms.
• Basavanna is the founder of Lingayatism and is strongly against the rigid practices of the caste system.
  • Basavanna (1106-68) was a Brahmana and a minister in the court of a Kalachuri ruler. 
  • His followers were known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).
  • Lingayats believed that there is no rebirth and on death, the devotee reunites with Shiva never coming back to the World. 
  • Hence Lingayats of Kannada region questioned the theory of rebirth and rejected the caste hierarchy.

Q. With reference to the religious history of India, consider the following statements:

1. The concept of Bodhisattva is central to Hinayana sect of Buddhism.
2. Bodhisattva is a compassionate one on his way to enlightenment.
3. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to it.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only

Bodhisattva:

• A Bodhisattva (Pali: bodhisatta) is an individual who has achieved Enlightenment or Buddhahood but vows to return to the cycle of samsāra (worldly existence) to assist all sentient beings in attaining Buddhahood. This concept, central to Mahayana Buddhism, emphasises universal compassion and selfless dedication to the liberation of all beings.
• The term “bodhisattva,” meaning “Buddha-to-be,” is significant in Buddhist philosophy. The concept of the bodhisattva, along with that of the Buddha and the chakravartin(universal ruler), existed in India before Gautama Buddha’s time.
  • It also encompasses Gautama’s previous rebirths, during which he progressed toward enlightenment across lifetimes as animals, humans, or other forms.
  • According to Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born as a prince in a kingdom in northeastern India, but he renounced his royal life and wealth to pursue enlightenment. Eventually, he transitioned from a Bodhisattva to a fully awakened Buddha.
• In Mahāyāna Buddhism, which is widely practised in East and Central Asia, the concept of Bodhisattva expands beyond Gautama.
• Mahāyāna posits that every true follower’s ultimate goal is to attain Buddhahood, making the Bodhisattva vow central to their spiritual journey.
• This school emphasises the existence of multiple Buddhas and describes highly evolved Bodhisattvas who have cultivated profound merits and powers across countless lifetimes.

Key Bodhisattvas:

Avalokitesvara (Padmapani):

• He is also known as the Bodhisattva of Compassion and is one of the most revered figures in Buddhism.
• He is often depicted holding a lotus flower, symbolising purity and compassion, and is prominently featured in the Ajanta Caves murals.
• In Cambodian Theravada Buddhism, he is referred to as Lokesvara; in some traditions, he is portrayed as a feminine figure.
• The Dalai Lama is believed to be an incarnation of Avalokitesvara, emphasising his role as a protector and guide for all sentient beings.

Vajrapani:

• He embodies the power of the Buddha and the energies of the Five Tathagatas: Vairocana, Akshobhya, Amitabha, Ratnasambhava, and Amoghasiddhi.
• He is often depicted in the Ajanta Caves, symbolising strength, protection, and the force required to overcome obstacles on the spiritual path.

Manjusri:

• He is the Bodhisattva of Wisdom and symbolises the clarity and insight of the Buddha.
• He is often portrayed wielding a sword, representing the ability to cut through ignorance and delusion.
• Manjusri is one of the three protecting deities surrounding the Buddha, embodying the wisdom necessary for enlightenment.

Samantabhadra:

• He is associated with meditation and practice, highlighting the importance of spiritual discipline.
• He is part of the Shakyamuni Triad, standing alongside the Buddha and Manjusri, and symbolises the practical application of Buddhist teachings in daily life.

Ksitigarbha:

• He is depicted as a monk who has taken a profound vow not to achieve Buddhahood until all beings in hell have been freed from suffering.
• Known as the guide for beings in hell, he plays a critical role in alleviating pain and providing hope to those in distress.

Maitreya:

• He is revered as the Future Buddha, destined to descend to Earth, attain perfect enlightenment, and teach the pure Dharma.
• The popular image of the Laughing Buddha is often considered an incarnation of Maitreya, symbolising joy, abundance, and spiritual promise.

Akasagarbha:

• He is linked to the concept of space, symbolising its vast and infinite nature.
• He represents boundless compassion and wisdom, reflecting the immensity and interconnectedness of the universe.

Tara:

• She is a Vajrayana deity who embodies success, labour, and accomplishments.
• She is revered as a saviour and protector, offering assistance to those facing obstacles and challenges.
• Tara’s presence in Buddhist practice highlights her role as a guiding force for overcoming adversity.

Vasudhara:

• She symbolises wealth, prosperity, and abundance.
• She is especially popular in Nepal, where she is worshipped as a deity who fosters fertility, fortune, and material well-being.

Skanda:

• He is recognised as the Protector of Viharas (Buddhist monasteries) and the teachings of the Buddha.
• He is honoured for his role in safeguarding practitioners and maintaining the sanctity of sacred spaces.

Sitatapatra:

• She is a revered deity in Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism, known for protecting against supernatural dangers.
• She is a guardian figure who shields followers from harm and helps preserve the integrity of their spiritual journey.

Q. What is/are common to the two historical places known as Ajanta and Mahabalipuram?

1. Both were built in the same period.
2. Both belong to the same religious denomination.
3. Both have rock-cut monuments.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) None of the statements given above is correct

Answer: (b) 3 only

Notes:

Ajanta Caves

• Location: Ajanta is a series of rock-cut caves in the Sahyadri ranges (Western Ghats) on Waghora river near Aurangabad in Maharashtra.
• Number of Caves: There are a total of 30 caves including the unfinished ones, (all buddhist), of which five (caves 9, 10, 19, 26 and 29) are chaityagrihas (sanctuary) and the rest, sangharamas or viharas (monastery).
• Time of Development
  • The caves were developed in the period between 200 B.C. to 650 A.D.
  • The Ajanta caves were inscribed by the Buddhist monks, under the patronage of the Vakataka kings – Harishena being a prominent one.
  • Reference of the Ajanta caves can be found in the travel accounts of Chinese Buddhist travellers Fa Hien (during the reign of Chandragupta II; 380- 415 CE) and Hieun Tsang (during the reign of emperor Harshavardhana; 606 – 647 CE). .
• Painting
  • The figures in these caves were done using fresco painting.
  • The outlines of the paintings were done in red colour. One of the striking features is the absence of blue colour in the paintings.
  • The paintings are generally themed around Buddhism – the life of Buddha and Jataka stories.
• UNESCO Site: The caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1983.

Mahabalipuram

• Mahabalipuram, also known as Mamallapuram, is a UNESCO World Heritage site located on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal in the state of Tamil Nadu, India.
• Renowned for its exceptional rock-cut temples, monolithic structures, and intricate carvings, Mahabalipuram stands as a testament to the architectural and artistic brilliance of ancient India.
• It is an important town of the erstwhile Pallava dynasty that ruled in parts of South India from 275 CE to 897 CE.
• It was founded by the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I in the 7^th century AD.
• The name Mamallapuram derives from Mamallan, or “great warrior”, a title by which the Pallava King Narasimhavarman I was known.
• The name Mamallapuram got distorted during the British era to Mahabalipuram and thus it is also known as Mahabalipuram.
• Mamallapuram contains many surviving 7th- and 8th-century Pallava temples and monuments, chief of which are the sculptured rock relief popularly known as “Arjuna’s Penance,” or “Descent of the Ganges,” a series of sculptured cave temples, and the Shore Temple.
• The town’s Five Rathas, or monolithic temples, are the remnants of seven temples, for which the town was known as Seven Pagodas. The entire assemblage collectively was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1984.
• The monuments may be subdivided into five categories:
  1. The mandapas (rock-cut caves): During the time of Narasimhavarman-I Mamalla, new innovations were introduced in the rock medium in the form of cave temples. Notable examples of the cave temple are Konerimandapa, Mahishmardhini cave, and Varahamandapa. These rock-cut caves are richly embellished with sculptural representations known for their natural grace and suppleness. Noteworthy among them are Mahishamardhini, Bhuvaraha, Gajalakshmi, Tirivikrama, and Durga.
  2. The rathas (monolithic temples): The monolithic temples are locally called “ratha” (chariot), as they resemble the processional chariots of a temple. These five monolithic temples are each hewn out of a huge boulder. They display the full form and features of the contemporary temple form and show variations both in ground plan and elevation. They are richly carved with artistic motifs and wall panels depicting many Hindu divinities and royal portraits.
  3. The rock reliefs: The sculptural bas reliefs are another very important class of masterly creations created during Mamalla’s reign. There are four such reliefs at Mamallapuram, the most noteworthy among them being the Arjuna’s Penance and Govardhanadhari.
  4. The temples: King Rajasimha introduced structural architecture on a grand scale. The earliest and most modest is the Mukundanayananar temple, followed by the Olakkanesvara temple, perched on a rock near the lighthouse. The tempo of structural edifices culminated in the creation of the famous Shore temple, having the most finite layout of a Dravida vimana, majestically fringing the sea.
  5. The excavated remains: Sustained removal of the sand over a period of time has brought to light several buried structures around the Shore temple. Unique among them is a stepped structure, a miniature shrine, a Bhuvaraha image, a reclining image of Vishnu, and a well from Pallava King Narasimhavarman Rajasimha’s reign (638-660 CE), all of which are carved in the live bedrock. Remains of additional temples have recently been excavated, including one to the south of the Shore temple.