UPSC Prelims Research: Ancient History & Art and Culture 2013

Q. Which of the following statements is/are applicable to Jain doctrine?

1. The surest way of annihilating Karma is to practice penance
2. Every object, even the smallest particle has a soul
3. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (d) 1, 2 and 3

Notes:

• Jain doctrine centers on the path to liberation through non-violence (ahimsa), truth, non-stealing, non-attachment, and celibacy, aiming to purify the soul and escape the cycle of rebirth.
• The five doctrines of Jainism are:
  • Do not commit violence (Ahimsa)
  • Don’t speak a lie (Satya)
  • Don’t steal (Asteya)
  • Don’t acquire property (Aparigraha)
  • Observe continence (Brahmacharya)
• Jainism attached the utmost importance to ahimsa or non-injury to living beings.
• It acknowledged the existence of the gods but placed them lower than the Jina. 
• It didn’t condemn the Varna system as Buddhism did.
• It forbade its followers from engaging in war and even agriculture, as both practices involve the harm or killing of living beings.
  • Hence, they confined themselves to trade and merchants’ activities.
• It primarily aims at the attainment of freedom from worldly bonds. No ritual is required for such liberation. 
  • It can be attained through three principles called Three Jewels or Triratna i.e.
    • Right Faith (Samyakdarshana)
    • Right Knowledge (Samyakjnana)
    • Right Action (Samyakcharita)

Q. The Chinese traveler Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) who visited India recorded the general conditions and culture of India at that time. In this context, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. The roads and river-routes were completely immune from robbery.
2. As regards punishment for offences, ordeals by fire, water and poison were the instruments for determining the innocence or guilt of a person.
3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below.

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only

Notes:

• The Chinese traveler Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) visited India during the reign of emperor Harsha Vardhana and stayed for almost 15 years from 630-645 A.D.
  • After returning back to China he wrote the book ‘Si-yu-ki’ (Record of the Western Countries) in which he wrote a detailed description of India.
  • His prime objective to visit India was to secure genuine Buddhist scriptures and visit places of Buddhist interest as he was interested in Mahayana Buddhism.
• Yuan Chwang (Hiuen Tsang) made the following observations of India:
  • There were different types of houses constructed of wood, bricks, and dung. The streets of the city were circular and dirty.
  • New cities grew up in place of the old ones which got ruined. Prayag and Kannauj (capital) were important cities where he witnessed the assemblies.
  • Nalanda and Valabhi were the important centres of Buddhist learning.
  • Indians wore garments made of cotton, silk, and wool and are lovers of education, literature, and fine arts.
  • He also praised the emperor Harsha and his administration. He wrote that the criminal law was severe and the offenders were given imprisonment, also trial by ordeals was in vogue, but still the roads were not safe and he himself got robbed more than once. Also, the emperor maintained a large, powerful, and well-equipped army.
  • According to him, the government was liberal in the case of tax and revenue collection. Tradesmen had to pay light duties at ferries and barrier stations.
  • The people did not include meat in their diet, the society was divided based on caste, and women were respected in general.
  • Brahmanical system of religion was prominent and Sanskrit was the language of the cultured classes.

Q. Which of the following characterizes/ characterize the people of Indus Civilization?

1. They possessed great palaces and temples.
2. They worshipped both male and female deities.
3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.

Select the correct statement/ statements using the codes given below.

(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None of the statements given above is correct

Answer: (b) 2 only

Features of IVC:

• No building has been discovered at any Harappan site that can be positively identified as a temple, but the Great Bath at Mohenjo-Daro may have been used for ritual purposes.
• Figurines resembling a female deity have been found.
  • They suggest the worship of Mother Goddess.
  • A seal with a male figure sitting in a logical posture with a trident-like headgear, surrounded by animals, has been found.
  • This has a lot of similarities with Shiva.
    • From this, it is figured that the Harappans might be worshipping Shiva.
  • Clay figures of the Mother Goddess, worshipped by the people as a symbol of fertility, have been found.
  • A seated figure of a male god, carved on a small stone seal, has also been found.
  • The scene immediately brings to mind the traditional image of Pasupati Mahadeva.
  • In addition to these, we come across numerous symbols of the phallus and female sex organs made of stone, which may have been objects of worship.
• On the basis of the Indus seals, it can be said that a large number of animals including goats, buffaloes, oxen, elephants, dogs, and camels were domesticated.
  • However, the Harappans do not appear to have been familiar with the horse.

Religious Practices:

• One of the first understandings of the Harappan religion was forwarded by John Marshall. He found several parallels between the Harappan religion and modern Hinduism. One of the seals was identified by him as a ‘Proto-Shiva’ seal.
  • This seal has a male figure seated on a dais. His heels are joined, and his toes point downward. This position is very similar to mulabandhasana in yoga.
  • Figurines resembling a female deity have been found. They suggest worship of the Mother Goddess
  • No temples have been discovered at any of the Harappan sites.
  • Harappans might have also venerated pipal trees. One seal depicts seven figures paying obeisance to the tree.

Q. Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are called Chaityas, while the others are called Viharas. What is the difference between the two?

(a) Vihara is a place of worship, while Chaitya is the dwelling place of the monks

(b) Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the dwelling place of the monks

(c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the cave, while Vihara is the hall axial to it

(d) There is no material difference between the two

Answer: (b) Chaitya is a place of worship, while Vihara is the dwelling place of the monks

Notes:

• In Buddhist rock-cut architecture, Chaityas are prayer halls or places of worship, often containing a stupa, while Viharas are monasteries or dwelling places for Buddhist monks.
• Chaityas:
  • Serve as places of worship and assembly, often featuring a stupa (a dome-shaped structure) at one end.
  • They are essentially sacred halls for congregational worship by both monks and the general public.
  • Examples include the chaitya halls at Ajanta, Pitalkhora, and Bhaja.
  • Apsidal vault roof chaitya halls are common.
• Viharas:
  • Function as monasteries or dwelling places for Buddhist monks.
  • They are where monks would live, study, and meditate.
  • Viharas are strategically located near trade routes to allow monks to receive food donations from visiting traders.

Q. Which one of the following describes best the concept of Nirvana in Buddhism?

(a) The extinction of the flame of desire

(b) The complete annihilation of self

(c) A state of bliss and rest

(d) A mental stage beyond all comprehension

Answer: (a) The extinction of the flame of desire

Notes:

• In Buddhism, Nirvana is best described as the extinction of the flame of desire, representing liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth by extinguishing craving, attachment, and ignorance.
• Nibbana (Nirvana): The ultimate goal of the Buddha’s teaching was the attainment of Nibbana. This was not a place but an experience and could be attained in this life.
  • Nirvana means the shedding of all desires and ending of sufferings, which finally leads to freedom from rebirth.
  • By a process of elimination of desire, one can attain ‘nirvana.
  • Therefore, Buddha preached that annihilation of desire is the real problem. Prayers and sacrifices will not end the desire. So unlike the emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in the Vedic religion, he laid emphasis on the moral life of an individual.
  • The Buddha is supposed to have experienced Nibbana, as did some of his disciples.
  • Nibbana literally means blowing out, drying out, or extinction -the dying out or extinction of desire, attachment, greed, hatred, ignorance, and the sense of I-ness and breaking out of the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
  • Nibbana does not mean physical death.
  • The term parinibbana (complete or final dying out) is used for the death of an enlightened being such as the Buddha.
• Tenets of Buddhism:
  • Buddha asked his followers to avoid the two extremes of indulgence in worldly pleasure and the practice of strict abstinence and asceticism.
  • He ascribed instead the ‘Madhyam Marg’ or the middle path which was to be followed.
  • According to him, everyone was responsible for their own happiness in life, stressing the individualistic component of Buddhism.
  • The main teachings of Buddhism are encapsulated in the basic concept of four noble truths or ariya-sachchani and eightfold path or astangika marg.
• Four noble truths:
  • Suffering (dukkha) is the essence of the world.
  • Every suffering has a cause – Samudya.
  • Suffering could be extinguished – Nirodha.
  • It can be achieved by following the Atthanga Magga (Eight-Fold Path). 

Q. With reference to the history of Indian rock-cut architecture, consider the following statements:

1. The caves at Badami are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India
2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were originally made for Ajivikas by Emperor Chandragupta Maurya
3. At Ellora, caves were made for different faiths.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Answer: (c) 3 only

Barabar Caves:

• The Barabar Hill Caves are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India, dating from the Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE), some with Ashokan inscriptions, located in the Makhdumpur region of Jehanabad district, Bihar, India.
• These caves are situated in the twin hills of Barabar (four caves) and Nagarjuni (three caves).
• These rock-cut chambers bear dedicatory inscriptions in the name of “King Piyadasi” for the Barabar group, and “Devanampiya Dasaratha” for the Nagarjuni group, thought to date back to the 3rd century BCE during the Maurya period, and to correspond respectively to Ashoka (reigned 273–232 BCE) and his grandson, Dasharatha Maurya.
• The caves were used by ascetics from the Ajivika sect, founded by Makkhali Gosala, a contemporary of Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and of Mahavira, the last and 24th Tirthankara of Jainism.
  • The Ajivikas had many similarities with Buddhism as well as Jainism.

Badami Caves:

• Badami is a town in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka.
• The caves were constructed in the 6th century by the Chalukya Dynasty in their capital Badami, which was earlier known as Vatapi.
• The caves significantly represent Indian rock-cut architecture, especially Badami Chalukya architecture.
• The caves house several Hindu and Jain temples. The Hindu temples are mainly dedicated to Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu, and their incarnations.
• The caves are a World Heritage Site of UNESCO.

Ellora Caves:

• The caves are located in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra.
• The caves are complex of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain monuments; and are one of the largest rock-cut monastery-temple cave complexes in the world.
• More than 100 caves are there at the site and all the monuments were built during the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
• It was designated as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Cave Architecture in Ancient India

Q. In the context of cultural history of India, a pose in dance and dramatics called ‘Tribhanga’ has been a favourite of Indian artists from ancient times till today. Which one of the following statements best describes this pose?

(a) One leg is bent and the body is slightly but oppositely curved at waist and neck

(b) Facial expressions, hand gestures and make-up are combined to symbolize certain epic or historic characters

(c) Movements of body, face and hands are used to express oneself or to tell a story

(d) A little smile, slightly curved waist and certain hand gestures are emphasized to express the feelings of love or eroticism

Answer: (a) One leg is bent and the body is slightly but oppositely curved at waist and neck

Notes:

• Tribhaṅga or Tribunga is a standing body position or stance used in traditional Indian art and Indian classical dance forms.
• The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowk and the Tribhanga.
  • The chowk is a position imitating a square – a very masculine stance with the weight of the body equally balanced.
  • The tribhanga is a very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and knees.
• Tribhanga consists of three bends in the body; at the neck, waist and knee, hence the body is oppositely curved at waist and neck which gives it a gentle “S” shape and is considered the most graceful and sensual of the Odissi positions.

Q. Consider the following Bhakti Saints:

1. Dadu Dayal
2. Guru Nanak
3. Tyagaraja

Who among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi dynasty fell and Babur took over?

(a) 1 and 3
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 2

Answer: (b) 2 only

Guru Nanak (1469-1539)

• Guru Nanak Dev was born in 1469. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi in 1526.
• When Babur took over and established the Mughal dynasty Nanak was travelling to different parts of India and preaching Sikhism.
  • Babur once met Guru Nanak during one of his travel.
• Guru Nanak, the founder and first Guru of Sikhism, was born in the village Talwandi in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent in the year 1469.
• In modern-day Pakistan, the village of Nankana Sahib is located near the city of Lahore.
• Guru Nanak’s birth is commemorated by Sikhs all over the world on the Pooranmashi (full moon) day in the Lunar month of Katak (October-November), which varies from year to year.
• He was a proponent of Nirguna School and was inspired by Kabir Das.
• He emphasized “Nam Japna,” or repeating God’s name in order to sense his presence. It is important to stress, however, that Sikhism is not a continuation of the Bhakti movement.
• He also chastised discriminatory caste systems and called for all people to be treated equally. Everyone was welcome to come and eat in the community kitchens (langars), regardless of their caste or creed.
• Guru Granth Sahib, the renowned Sikh text, contains his teachings.
• He taught about God’s unity and fiercely condemned idol worship, pilgrimages, and other formal religious observances.
• He called for a medium road in which a spiritual life could coexist with domestic responsibilities.
• One of his famous quotes was, “Abide pure amidst the impurities of the world.”
• He intended to blur the lines between Hindus and Muslims in order to foster a climate of peace, friendliness, and reciprocal giving and taking.
• Guru Nanak was venerated by both Hindus and Muslims throughout his lifetime on Earth, and many people outside of the Sikh faith still hold him in high regard today.

Dadu Dayal (1544-1603)

• Dadu worked as a cotton cleaner for a living. He was born in Ahmedabad, India, around 1544 to Brahmin merchant parents.
• Lodi Ram was his father’s name. He lived during the conclusion of Akbar’s reign and at the start of Jehangir’s.
• He was a Kabir devotee who thought that God is independent of all religions and sects.
• He was a contemporary of Akbar, the Mughal emperor, and it is stated that Akbar held him in high regard.
• He was born in Gujarat and went to Jaipur later. Later, his supporters formed the Dadu Panth.
• Dadu rejected the Vedas (the earliest Hindu scriptures), caste divisions, and other divisive, external forms of worship, such as temple visits and pilgrimages.
• Instead, he focused on japa (the chanting of God’s name) and ideas like the soul as God’s bride.
• Dadu’s poetic aphorisms and devotional hymns, which served as the medium for his teachings, were compiled in Bani (“Poetic Utterances’ ‘), a 5,000-verse anthology.
• They also occur in a relatively fluid poetic anthology called Panchvani (“Five Utterances”), which serves as scriptures for the Dadu Panth, alongside selections from other poet-saints Kabir, Namdev, Ravidas, and Haridas.

Tyagaraja

• Tyagaraja, Indian composer of Carnatic songs of the genre kirtana, or kriti (devotional songs), and of ragas.
• Although, Purandara Dasa gave Carnatic Music a start, it was the musical trinity of Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshatar, and Syama Sastry really helped to bring structure to Carnatic Music, besides raising it to truly exalted levels.
• Tyagraja is known for his life and his exemplary devotion to Lord Rama, via the path of soulful music.
• Born in Thanjavur in 1767, Tyagaraja is credited with creating thousands of devotional compositions mostly in praise of Lord Rama, of which his most famous is called the Tyagaraja Aradhana, a music festival, is held every year at Thiruvaiyaru in his honour. 

Q. Consider the following historical places:

1. Ajanta Caves
2. Lepakshi Temple
3. Sanchi Stupa

Which of the above places is/are also known for mural paintings?

(a) 1 only
(b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None

Answer: (b) 1 and 2 only

Notes:

Mural Paintings:

• The mural is the only form of painting that is truly three-dimensional since it modifies and partakes a given space.
• Mural paintings are applied on drywall with the major use of egg, yolk, oil, etc.
• Notable examples: Ajanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Sittanavasal Caves, Armamalai Cave (Tamil Nadu), Kailasa temple (Ellora Caves).
• Murals from this period depict mainly religious themes of Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu.
• Depict a large number of incidents from the life of the Buddha (Jataka Tales).
• Exclusively Buddhist, excepting decorative patterns on the ceilings and the pillars.
• Lepakshi Temple:
  • Lepakshi temple is a good repository of mural paintings of the Vijayanagar Kings.
  • Located on a low, rocky hill called Kurmasailam (which translates to tortoise hill in Telugu) in southern Andhra Pradesh, the Lepakshi temple was built by the brothers, Virupanna and Veeranna, who were initially in the service of the Vijayanagar rulers in 1583.
  • It is famed for its Hanging Column or Pillar, a monolithic Nandi (4.5 m high and 8.23 m long) and finest specimens of mural paintings.
• Sanchi Stupa:
  • Sanchi is known for sculptures. Commissioned by the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka in 3rd century BC, it is a simple hemispherical brick structure built over the relics of the Buddha with four Torana (ornamental gateways).
  • It also has stone reliefs inspired from the life of the Buddha and pillar having central anta capital with many rosettes, beads-and-reels, as well as a central palmette design.
  • It does not have any mural paintings.

Q. With reference to the history of philosophical thought in India, consider the following statements regarding Sankhya school:

1. Sankhya does not accept the theory of rebirth or transmigration of soul.
2. Sankhya holds that it is the self-knowledge that leads to liberation and not any exterior influence or agent.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2

Answer: (b) 2 only

Sankhya School of Philosophy:

• Founder: Kapil Mani
• Core Philosophy: It postulates that everything, in reality, stems from Purusha (self or soul or mind) and Prakriti (matter, creative agency, energy).
• This is the oldest school of philosophy.
• Samkhya’s tendency of thought pervades all the literature of ancient India, including the Srutis, Smritis and Puranas.
• According to tradition, the first work of the Samkhya School is the Samkhya-sutra.
• The Samkhya is a dualistic realism philosophy.
• Theory of Causation: The Samkhya metaphysics, especially its doctrine of Prakriti, rests mainly on its theory of causation, known as satkarya-vada.
• It accepts only three types of knowledge (pramana):
  • Pratyaksha: Perception
  • Anumana: Inference
  • Shabda: Hearing.

Samkhya School of India Philosophy