9.1 Human Genetics – Methods and Application:

Methods for study of genetic principles in man-family study (pedigree analysis, twin study, foster child, co-twin method, cytogenetic method, chromosomal and karyo-type analysis), biochemical methods, immunological methods, D.N.A technology and recombinant technologies

“Genetic similarities far outweigh the racial differences among men.” Discuss. (1981)
Write a note on Heredity and environment. (1988)
Discuss the genetical and clinical aspects of the anomalies of sex chromosomes in man with special reference to the associated mosaic constitutions. (1995)
Why are gender studies gaining importance these days ? Assess the contribution of anthropology to gender studies. (1996)
Discuss the recent developments in genetic techniques and comment upon their potential social significance. (1997)
Define twins. Describe the method of diagnosis of twins. In what ways are twins useful in the study of human genetics. (1998)
Discuss the role of twins in naturenurture problems and illustrate your answer with suitable examples. (1999)
What do you understand by recombinant DNA technology ? Discuss its application and limitations in improving human health. (2000)
Write a note on Recombinant DNA technology (2001)
Write a note on Pedigree Analysis (2007)
Write a note in 150 words on Twin method in human genetics (2013)
Briefly describe the various methods used in the genetic study of man. (2017)
Write notes on: Pedigree analysis in genetic counselling. (2022)
Write notes on: Heritability and its estimation. (2024)
Differentiate between pedigree and genealogical analyses. Discuss the history and application of these methods in anthropological studies. (2025)
What are genetic markers? Discuss their applications in understanding population variation, disease association and forensics. (2025)

9.2 Mendelian genetics in man-family study, single factor, multifactor, lethal, sub-lethal and polygenic inheritance in man.

Mendelian principle are equally applicable to animal populations as well as to human populations. Discuss. (1982)
Discuss the laws of inheritance propounded by Mendel on the basis of his classic experiments. Explain how these laws are applied in the study of human genetics. (1986)
Discuss how the laws of heredity propounded by Mendel can be understood in the context of meiotic cell division and their application on Man.(1987)
Write a note on Law of Heredity as Propounded by Mendel. (1989)
Describe Mendel’s laws of Inheritance. What are the recent advances in human genetics and human cytogenetics ? (1990)
Write a note on Mendelism (1991)
What are Mendel’s laws of inheritance ? Describe the recent advances in human genetics. (1992)
What are the contributions of Gregor Mendel to the field of Genetics ? Discuss with suitable examples how Mendel’s laws of inheritance are applicable to Man? (1993)
Discuss monogenic and polygenic inheritance in man, citing suitable examples. (2011)
What are lethal and sub-lethal genes ?Explain.(2012)
Critically discuss the Mendelian principles and their application to human populations. (2016)
Write notes on: Polygenic Inheritance. (2023)
What is a multifactorial trait? Illustrate your answer with suitable human examples. (2024)
Write notes on: Mendelian and non-Mendelian traits. (2025)

9.3 Concept of genetic polymorphism and selection, Mendelian population, Hardy-Weinberg law; causes and changes which bring down frequency – mutation, isolation, migration, selection, inbreeding and genetic drift. Consanguineous and nonconsanguineous mating, genetic load, genetic effect of consanguineous and cousin marriages.

‘Inbreeding is not necessarily deleterious in effect.’ Comment (200 words) (1981)
Discuss the role of genetic drift, mutation and migration as the causes of variation. (1985)
What are the various forms of preferential mating? Explain with Indian examples. (1986)
Is inbreeding different from consanguinity? Give an account of inbreeding studies in India and comment on their social relevance. (1987)
Write a note on Inbreeding and hybridization. (1988)
Write a note on Inbreeding and crossbreeding (1993)
Discuss the concepts of balanced polymorphism and relaxed selection with special reference to Malaria dependent polymorphisms in man. (1996)
Discuss the concept of ‘Mendelian population’ and its application in the study of anthropo-genetic variations in India. (1997)
Write a note on Mutation (1998)
Define Hardy-Weinberg law and state briefly how Hardy-Weinberg law is applicable in population human genetics ? (1998)
Write a note on Genetic Adaptation (2000)
Write a note on Genetic Polymorphism and Selection (2003)
Describe in brief the major causes of change in gene frequency of a population. (2003)
Write a note on Problems of Inbreeding. (2005)
Write a note on Genetic Polymorphism (2006)
Write a note on Inbreeding (2008)
What do you understand by Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? Discuss the factors that produce and redistribute variations. (2008)
Write a note on Natural selection in humans (2009)
Write a note on Anthropological relevance of population genetics (2009)
What is ‘genetic load’ & what factors influence it ? (2009)
What is Balanced Genetic Polymorphism? How is it maintained in a population? (2010)
Write a note in 150 words on Conditions necessary for the operation of Hardy. Weinberg Law (2011)
Write a note in 150 words on Genetic polymorphism (2011)
Write a note in 150 words on How ‘natural selection’ acts on variation? (2012)
What are the genetic effects of consanguinity? Give examples (2012)
What do you understand by ‘Genetic Load’ in a population? How is it measured and what are the important factors that can influence it? (250 words) (2013)
Discuss the factors affecting gene frequencies among human populations (2014)
Define genetic polymorphism. Give details of its types with suitable examples. (2015)
What do you understand by Immunogenetics? Explain with suitable examples. (2015)
Write a note in 150 words on Hardy-Weinberg Law (2017)
Differentiate between transient and balanced genetic polymorphism. Illustrate your answer with suitable examples from human populations. (2019)
Write notes on the Genetic drift in about 150 words. (2020)
How do marriage rules impact the gene pool of populations? (2020)
Write notes on: Balanced and transient genetic polymorphism. (2022)
Discuss the role of evolutionary forces in creating human diversity. (2022)
What assumptions must be met for a population to be in genetic equilibrium? Explain the importance of genetic equilibrium. (2023)
What are genetic markers? Discuss their applications in understanding population variation, disease association and forensics. (2025)

9.4 Chromosomes and chromosomal aberrations in man, methodology.

Numerical and structural aberrations (disorders).
Sex chromosomal aberrations – Klinefelter (XXY), Turner (XO), Super female (XXX), intersex and other syndromic disorders.
Autosomal aberrations – Down syndrome, Patau, Edward and Cri- du-chat syndromes.
Genetic imprints in human disease, genetic screening, genetic counseling, human DNA profiling, gene mapping and genome study.

Write a note on Tourodontism (1987)
Write a note on Gene therapy (1995)
Write a note on Genetic counselling (1998)
Discuss the relevance of human DNA Profiling and Gene Mapping in the prevention and cure of diseases. (2001)
Write a note on Genetic Counselling (2002)
Write a note on Klinefelter syndrome (2003)
What is Genetic Counselling? Discuss its relevance in the present day context. (2006)
Write a note on Genome Study (2007)
Discuss different types of sex chromosomal aberrations. (2007)
Write a note in 150 words on Oncogenes (2010)
Chromosomal deletions and numerical fluctuations may lead to gross abnormalities in man. Discuss with the help of suitable examples. (2010)
Write a note in 150 words on Genetic Counselling (2012)
Discuss the chromosomal aberrations and manifestations of Klinefelter and Turner syndromes. (2012)
Write a note in 150 words on Genetic Counselling (2014)
Describe Turner and Klinefelter Syndromes in humans. (2014)
Write a note in 150 words on Down’s Syndrome. (2015)
Discuss chromosomal aberrations in man illustrating with examples. (2015)
Explain the significance of screening and counseling for genetic disorders. (2016)
Write a note in 150 words on Categorise Genes that influence Human Survival. (2018)
Describe the mechanisms for structural anomalies of autosomes with diagrams. (2018)
How may numerical aberrations in sex chromosomes lead to genetic disorders ?(2020)
What are the applications of human genomic research in human welfare? (2020)
“Chromosomal aberrations can play havoc with the human body and mind.” Explain with suitable examples. (2021)
Write notes on: Genetic imprinting in human diseases. (2022)
Describe the causes of structural abnormalities of chromosomes with suitable examples. (2023)
Describe the practical applications of DNA technology in the current scenario. (2023)
What is meant by karyotype? How does its analysis help in diagnosis of the chromosomal aberrations in man? (2024)
What is genetic counseling? Briefly discuss various steps involved in it. (2024)
‘Genome-wide Disease Association Studies (GWAS) advanced our understanding of health and disease.’ Discuss. (2025)

9.5 Race and racism, biological basis of morphological variation of non-metric and metric characters. Racial criteria, racial traits in relation to heredity and environment; biological basis of racial classification, racial differentiation and race crossing in man.

Discuss the role of environment and heredity in formation of races. (1982)
Racial superiority is not based on science. Substantiate. (1982)
Do you find a serological basis: of racial classification? Discuss. (1983)
Discuss the role of environment and heredity in the formation of race. (1984)
Define race and describe its relevance to modern anthropological studies. (1984)
Write a note on Factors involved in race formation in man. (1985)
Write a note on Controversies of race (1996)
Write a note on Racism (1987)
Define race as a biological concept and discuss the various criteria of racial classification. (1988)
Examine critically the basis of racial classification in the light of modern development in Physical Anthropology. (1989)
How are the races formed ? Describe the physical characteristics and distribution of different racial types in India ? (1990)
What is race ? Describe the criteria employed for the classification of human races: (1991)
Discuss the main processes involved in the formation of races. (1992)
Write a note on Racial types in India (l993)
Discuss the role of heredity and environment in formation of race (1994)
What is ‘race’ ? Enumerate and discuss the factors responsible for the formation of races.(1998)
Write a note on Racial criteria (1999)
Write a note on Race and Racism (2004)
Write a note on Racial Criteria (2006)
Is Race a valid concept ? Critically assess the relevance of racial classification in the Indian context. (2010)
Discuss race crossing in humans with suitable examples. (2012)
Differentiate between Race and Racism. What are three races of the world ? Give important biological criteria used frequently for such a classification. (250 words) (2013
Explain the role of heredity and environment in the formation of races. (2016)
Write a note in 150 words on Concept of race (2017)
Write a note in 150 words on Race is a Myth. Justify its Present Day Relevance. (2018)
With reference to the somatoscopic and morphometric characteristics commonly used for racial classification, make critical comments as to whether ‘Race’ is a valid concept. (2019)
Write notes on the Racism and Eugenics in about 150 words. (2020)
Write notes on : Is race a valid and biologically meaningful concept ?(in about 150 words) (2021)
Write notes on: Race and Ethnicity. (2023)

9.6 Age, sex and population variation as genetic marker:

ABO, Rh blood groups, HLA Hp, transferring, Gm, blood enzymes. Physiological characteristics- Hb level, body fat, pulse rate, respiratory functions and sensory perceptions in different cultural and socio-economic groups.

Evaluate genetic heterogeneity of ABO, Rh and Gm antigens. Discuss how the principle human groups can be distinguished on the basis of their blood antigen characteristic. (2000)
Write a note on ABO and Rh blood group distribution in human populations. (2008)
Write a note on Genetics of HLA and organ transplantation (2009)
Write a note in 150 words on Respiratory functions (2011)
Discuss the role of ABO blood group system in resolving cases of disputed paternity. (2012)
Give a comparative account of variations in hemoglobin level and respiratory functions among the populations living under different environmental stresses. (2012)
What are genetic markers and what is their usefulness? Why are blood groups considered as good genetic markers? Illustrate with examples. (250 words) (2013)
Write a note in 150 words on Rh-Blood Group (2016)
What do you understand by blood group systems? How is the HLA system different from those based on red cell antigens? (2022)
Write notes on: Hemoglobin in health and disease. (2024)
Describe the genetics and inheritance patterns of the ABO and Rh blood groups in man. (2024)

9.7 Concepts and methods of Ecological Anthropology:

Bio-cultural Adaptations – Genetic and Non- genetic factors. Man’s physiological responses to environmental stresses: hot desert, cold high-altitude climate.

Stature is susceptible to environmental influences. Substantiate. (1983)
Define adaptability. Compare the adaptive response in man to stresses at high altitudes and in a hot desert environment. (1995)
What is cultural ecology ? Discuss how man adapts himself to different environments, giving suitable examples.(1995)
Write a note on Ecological Anthropology (1997)
How are body size and shape related to climatic adaptation ? Discuss the ecological rules with examples from human situations. (1997)
Discuss the mechanism by which the human body adapts to altitudinal changes and other geographical stresses. (1999)
Define ecosystem. Explain with examples, how biocultural ad~ptive qualities have helped human survival in stressful eco-conditions. (2000)
Write a note on Ecological Anthropology. (2001)
Write a note on Biological adaptation (2002)
Examine adaptive significance of Human Variations in Tropical and Arctic climatic zones. (2007)
Define adaptability. What biocultural adjustments do humans show in coping up with stress at high altitude ?(2008)
Native highlanders are well adapted to the high altitude environment. Discuss. (2011)
How does improved aerobic fitness increase exercise tolerance in warm humid climates ? Give suitable examples in support of your answer. (2012)
Justify “Though human growth is under tight genetic control but it is influenced by various environmental factors.” (250 words) (2013)
Elaborate upon major human adaptations to heat and cold. (250 words) (2013)
Write a note in 150 words on Ecological Anthropology (2014)
What are the stresses at high altitudes? How do better cardio-respiratory functions help the native highlanders in combating low environmental pressure (2014)
Critically examine the physiologicaI responses and acclimatization to cold climate in Man.(2015)
Discuss the genetic and non-genetic factors in the bio-cultural adaptations of human beings to different environments. (2016)
Discuss the responses and acclimatization to high altitude stresses.(2017)
Distinguish between adaptation, adaptability and acclimatization with examples. (2018)
“Human adaptations are always biocultural in nature.” Discuss with reference to human adaptation to high altitude climate. (2019)
Describe the biocultural responses to extreme climatic events. (2020)
What is acclimatization? Discuss adaptive responses to high altitude and cold climate. (2021)
How political economy is integrated with ecological and adaptability perspectives in bio-cultural anthropology? (2025)

9.8 Epidemiological Anthropology:

Health and disease. Infectious and noninfectious diseases. Nutritional deficiency related diseases.

“Nutrition affects several physical features. ” Exemplify. (200 words) (1981)
Write a note on Effects of malnutrition (1993)
Write a note on Malnutrition (1994)
Write a note on Malnutrition (2000)
Write a note on Impact of smoking on Health (2004)
Write a note on Drug Abuse (2005)
Write a note on non-communicable diseases (2009)
Write a note in 150 words on Social I concept of disease (2010)
Write a note in 150 words on Epidemiological anthropology (2012)
Briefly discuss the important causes for the variations in occurrence and intensity of parasitic diseases among different populations. (2012)
What is meant by epidemiological transition? Elaborate upon its causes and consequences highlighting major health problems of our adult population today. (250 words) (2013)
Discuss the role of anthropology in the understanding of health and disease. What specific understanding is available with respect to infectious and non-infectious diseases ? (2014)
Write a note in 150 words on Epidemiological Anthropology (2014)
Describe the scope of Epidemiological Anthropology in the study of infectious and non-infectious diseases. (2016)
Narrate evolution of disease and major causes of ill health in human populations. (2018)
Critically examine the demographic and epidemiological consequences with rise in food production and sedentism. (2020)
Describe the impact of infectious diseases on indigenous populations. (2020)
What is meant by health? Is the burden of lifestyle diseases on the rise? Justify your answer with suitable examples. (2022)
Elucidate the different forms of malnutrition. Describe protein-calorie malnutrition with suitable examples. (2023)
Critically comment on the lifestyle diseases and their impact on human health. (2024)
How anthropologists assess the nutritional status of a community? Discuss the significance of intersectionality of ecology, culture, and social inequality in the study of nutritional anthropology. (2025)
Write notes on: Foetal origin of adult diseases and contribution of David Barker. (2025)