The Pahari School of Painting
- The term Pahari literally means “hilly” or “mountainous” in origin, and the Pahari School of Painting refers to the miniature painting traditions that developed across the hill states of the western Himalayas.
- These traditions flourished in towns such as Basohli, Guler, Kangra, Kullu, Chamba, Mankot, Nurpur, Mandi, Bilaspur, and Jammu, which emerged as important centres of painting from the 17th to the 19th century.
- Beginning at Basohli with a coarsely flamboyant style, the tradition gradually evolved — through the Guler or pre-Kangra phase — into the most exquisite and sophisticated style of Indian painting, known as the Kangra School.
- Unlike the Mughal, Deccani, and Rajasthani Schools, which have relatively distinguishable stylistic markers, the Pahari School poses genuine challenges of territorial classification, making it an important and nuanced theme for UPSC History Optional aspirants.
Origin and the Problem of Territorial Classification
- Each of the hill centres developed individualistic characteristics — visible in their treatment of nature, architecture, figural types, facial features, costumes, and colour preferences.
- However, despite these local variations, these centres did not develop as independent schools with wholly distinctive styles.
- Classification is further complicated by:
- Paucity of dated material.
- Absence of adequate colophons and inscriptions, which prevents precise, informed categorisation.
- On the emergence of the Pahari School:
- Its precise origins remain unclear, though scholars have cautiously proposed theories on its beginnings and influences.
- It is widely accepted that Mughal and Rajasthani painting styles were already known in the hills, likely transmitted through:
- Examples of the Provincial Mughal style.
- Family/marital relationships between hill Rajas and the royal courts of Rajasthan.
- The flamboyantly bold Basohli-like style is generally regarded as the earliest prevailing pictorial language of the Pahari region.
B.N. Goswamy’s Family-Based Approach to Pahari Style
- B. N. Goswamy, one of the most significant scholars of the Pahari School, explained the stylistic journey — from the simplicity of Basohli to the poetic lyricism and refinement of Kangra — as the achievement of a single family of artists rather than of independent regional schools.
- Central argument: The family of Pandit Seu (Shiv) was chiefly responsible for shaping the course of Pahari painting.
- Goswamy argues that identifying Pahari paintings purely on the basis of region can be misleading, since political boundaries in the hill states were always fluid.
- This critique applies equally to the Rajasthani schools, where attribution by region alone creates vagueness and leaves several stylistic disparities unexplained.
- By contrast, treating a family of artists as the style-bearer allows multiple stylistic strands within the same region or school to be logically accommodated.
- Stylistic transition traced by Goswamy:
- In the early 18th century, the style of the Seu family and other artists conformed broadly to the Basohli idiom.
- From the mid-18th century, this style transformed through a pre-Kangra phase, eventually maturing into the Kangra style.
- Causes of this stylistic shift:
- The transformation and accompanying experimentation — giving rise to varied stylistic idioms across different Pahari centres — is largely attributed to the response of artist families to new paintings (especially in the Mughal style) that were introduced into the Pahari kingdoms.
- These new paintings may have arrived through rulers, artists, traders, or other such agencies, and they profoundly influenced local painting language.
- Most scholars now dispute the earlier hypothesis that this sudden change was caused by the migration of artists from the Mughal atelier.
- For Goswamy, it was the naturalism in these newly introduced paintings that appealed to the sensibilities of Pahari artists.
- New stylistic elements associated with this transition:
- Compositions worked out from a relative point of view, with some paintings featuring decorated margins.
- New themes, including the daily routine or important occasions from the lives of kings.
- The creation of a new prototype for the female form and an idealised face — features that gradually matured into the Kangra phase.
Major Pahari Schools of Painting
Basohli School
- The first and most dramatic example of painting from the hill states originates from Basohli.
- Kirpal Pal, an enlightened prince, ruled the state from 1678 to 1695; under his patronage, Basohli developed a distinctive and magnificent style.
- Stylistic features:
- Strong use of primary colours and warm yellows, filling the background and horizon.
- Stylised treatment of vegetation.
- Raised white paint used to represent pearls in ornaments.
- Most distinctively, the use of small, shiny green beetle-wing particles to delineate jewellery and simulate the effect of emeralds.
- In their vibrant palette and elegance, Basohli paintings share aesthetic affinities with the Chaurpanchashika group of paintings from Western India.
- Popular themes:
- The Rasamanjari of Bhanu Datta was the most popular theme among Basohli painters.
- In 1694–95, Devidasa, a tarkhan (carpenter-painter), produced a magnificent series on this theme for his patron Kirpal Pal.
- The Bhagvata Purana and Ragamala were other popular themes.
- Artists also painted portraits of local kings along with their consorts, courtiers, astrologers, mendicants, and courtesans.
- The Rasamanjari of Bhanu Datta was the most popular theme among Basohli painters.
- Spread of the Basohli idiom:
- Basohli ateliers gradually spread to other hill states such as Chamba and Kullu, producing local variations of the Basohli kalam.
- Between the 1690s and 1730s, a new style emerged, referred to as the Guler–Kangra phase, marked by experimentation and improvisation that eventually shaped the Kangra style.
- From Basohli, the style thus spread to Mankot, Nurpur, Kullu, Mandi, Bilaspur, Chamba, Guler, and Kangra.
- The Ramayana at Basohli and Kullu:
- The Ramayana was among the favourite texts of hill artists at both Basohli and Kullu.
- The “Shangri” Ramayana set takes its name from Shangri, the residence of a branch of the Kullu royal family, who were its patrons and former owners.
- These works, produced by Kullu artists, were influenced in varying degrees by the styles of Basohli and Bilaspur.
- A representative scene depicts Rama learning of his exile, preparing to leave Ayodhya with Sita and Lakshmana; maintaining equanimity, Rama gives away his possessions, and at his request, Lakshmana piles up his belongings — including jewellery, sacrificial vessels, and a thousand cows — as the crowd gathers to receive his largesse.
Guler School
- The first quarter of the 18th century witnessed a complete transformation of the Basohli style, initiating the Guler–Kangra phase.
- This phase first appeared in Guler, a high-ranking branch of the Kangra royal family, under the patronage of Raja Govardhan Chand (1744–1773).
- Guler artist Pandit Seu, along with his sons Manak (Manaku) and Nainsukh, is credited with changing the course of painting around 1730–40, giving rise to a new style — usually called the pre-Kangra or Guler–Kangra kalam — that was more refined, subdued, and elegant than the bold vitality of the Basohli style.
- Division of legacy between the brothers:
- Manaku initiated the new stylistic direction.
- Nainsukh, who became court painter to Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota, is credited with emphatically shaping the Guler School.
- The most matured version of this style entered Kangra during the 1780s, developing into the Kangra School, while offshoots of the Basohli style continued in Chamba and Kullu.
- Continuity of the family workshop:
- The sons and grandsons of Manaku and Nainsukh worked at several other centres and produced some of the finest examples of Pahari paintings.
- Guler appears to have the longest painting tradition among all Pahari schools:
- Evidence shows artists were active in Haripur-Guler since the reign of Dalip Singh (1695–1743), with portraits of Dalip Singh and his son Bishan Singh datable to before the 1730s — i.e., prior to the Guler–Kangra phase.
- Bishan Singh died during his father’s lifetime, so his younger brother Govardhan Chand ascended the throne, a transition that coincided with a change in painting style.
- Manaku’s notable work: A set of Gita Govinda paintings (1730, Guler) — his most outstanding work — which retains elements of the Basohli style, most notably the lavish use of beetle-wing casings.
- Nainsukh’s career and contribution:
- Nainsukh left Guler and moved to Jasrota, initially working for Mian Zoravar Singh, whose son and successor Balwant Singh of Jasrota became his greatest patron.
- Nainsukh’s celebrated portraits of Balwant Singh offer a unique visual record of the patron’s daily life — shown performing puja, surveying a building site, or sitting in a camp wrapped in a quilt during cold weather.
- His genius for individual portraiture became a salient feature of the later Pahari style.
- His palette favoured delicate pastel shades alongside daring expanses of white or grey.
- Later generation of Guler artists:
- Manaku also painted numerous portraits of his enthusiastic patron Raja Govardhan Chand and his family.
- Prakash Chand, successor of Govardhan Chand, shared his father’s passion for art and employed Khushala, Fattu, and Gaudhu — sons of Manaku and Nainsukh — as artists in his court.
Kangra School
- Painting in the Kangra region blossomed under the patronage of Raja Sansar Chand (1775–1823).
- When Prakash Chand of Guler fell into grave financial crisis and could no longer maintain his atelier, his master artist Manaku and his sons took service under Sansar Chand of Kangra.
- Political background:
- Sansar Chand ascended the throne at the age of 10, after the kingdom had already been restored to its earlier glory by his grandfather, Ghamand Chand.
- The rulers belonged to the Katoch dynasty, long-time rulers of the Kangra region, until Jahangir conquered their territory in the 17th century and reduced them to vassalage.
- After the decline of Mughal power, Raja Ghamand Chand recovered most of the lost territory, founded his capital at Tira Sujanpur on the banks of the river Beas, constructed fine monuments, and maintained an atelier of artists.
- Sansar Chand established the supremacy of Kangra over all surrounding hill states, and Tira Sujanpur became the most prolific centre of painting under his patronage.
- An earlier phase of Kangra kalam painting is seen at Alampur, while the most matured paintings were produced at Nadaun, where Sansar Chand later shifted.
- All these centres — Alampur, Tira Sujanpur, and Nadaun — lay on the banks of the river Beas, which is itself recognisable in several paintings.
- Comparatively fewer paintings were produced at Kangra town itself, since it remained under Mughal, and later Sikh, control until 1786.
- Sansar Chand’s son, Aniruddha Chand (1823–1831), was also a generous patron, frequently depicted in paintings with his courtiers.
- Stylistic features of the Kangra School:
- Regarded as the most poetic and lyrical of Indian painting styles, marked by serene beauty and delicacy of execution.
- Characterised by delicacy of line, brilliance of colour, and minuteness of decorative detail.
- A distinctive feature — which came into vogue around the 1790s — is the depiction of the female face with a straight nose in line with the forehead.
- Popular themes: Bhagvata Purana, Gita Govinda, Nala-Damayanti, Bihari Satsai, Ragamala, and Baramasa.
- Important painters:Fattu, Purkhu, and Khushala.
- During Sansar Chand’s reign, Kangra’s output far exceeded that of any other hill state, as his political power allowed him to support a large studio drawing artists from Guler and other regions.
- The Kangra style eventually spread from Tira Sujanpur to Garhwal in the east and Kashmir in the west.
- Decline:
- Painting activity suffered a severe setback around 1805, when the Gurkhas besieged the Kangra fort, forcing Sansar Chand to flee to his hill palace at Tira Sujanpur.
- In 1809, with the assistance of Ranjit Singh, the Gurkhas were driven away.
- Though Sansar Chand continued to maintain his atelier, later work no longer matched the masterpieces of the 1785–1805 period.
- The Bhagvata Purana series is considered one of the greatest achievements of Kangra artists.
- It is noted for its effortless naturalism and its deft, vivid rendering of figures in unusual poses that crisply portray dramatic scenes.
- The principal master is believed to have been a descendant of Nainsukh, commanding much of his ancestor’s skill.
- One notable painting depicts a scene from the Rasa Panchadhyayi, a group of five chapters of the Bhagvata Purana devoted to the philosophical concept of Rasa.
- It portrays the intense love of the gopis for Krishna, and their real anguish when he suddenly disappears.
- In their forlorn separation, the gopis question the deer, trees, and creepers about Krishna’s whereabouts, receiving no answers.
- Absorbed in thoughts of Krishna, the gopis recall and re-enact his various lilas (divine feats).
Chamba School
- Typical female figures in Chamba paintings exude a warm, sensual, and charming beauty.
- The school is noted for its deft handling and mixing of colours, with the canvas space dominated by red and blue tones.
Mandi School
- Art from the Mandi School is distinguished by its depiction of the Tantra cult, associated with the worship of the Devi (Goddess).
- The ferocious and wrathful forms of the Devi are rendered with a larger-than-life finish and a crude, mystified look, using deep tones of red, black, and blue.
Other Pahari Schools of Painting
Garhwal School
- Shares an affinity with the Guler School, particularly in its sensitive portrayal of landscape.
- A typical Garhwal miniature often features an overcast sky with clouds and foggy landscapes.
Hindur or Nalagarh School
- Distinguished by evolved symbolism and rich narrative detail.
- Marked by realistic depictions of the human figure, with sharp features, rich costumes, and each figure shown engaged in its own individual activity.
Jammu School
- Human figures in Jammu School paintings are typically tall and slim, with marked, well-defined physical characteristics.
- Other stylised features include depictions of hills and dramatic natural settings, rendered in bright, light colours.
Patiala School
- An integral part of the Sikh School of painting, this style developed in the Punjab plains.
- Characterised by Sikh imagery, stereotypical costumes, and a distinctive emphasis on features such as beards and moustaches.
Kashmir, Lahore, Mankot, and Other Minor Schools
- These represent the surrounding minor centres where Pahari art developed, largely following the conventions of the major art centres.
- There exists little stylistic difference between these minor schools.
Conclusion
- The Pahari School of Painting exemplifies the complexity of tracing regional art traditions through a period of shifting political boundaries, itinerant artist families, and overlapping influences from Mughal and Rajasthani painting.
- From the bold, flamboyant idiom of Basohli, through the refined transitional phase at Guler under Pandit Seu, Manaku, and Nainsukh, to the lyrical maturity of the Kangra style under Raja Sansar Chand, the Pahari tradition reveals how family lineage, rather than territorial boundaries alone, shaped stylistic evolution — as argued persuasively by B. N. Goswamy.
- Alongside these major schools, distinct regional idioms at Chamba, Mandi, Garhwal, Jammu, Hindur, and Patiala further illustrate the diversity within unity that characterises the Pahari School of Painting, making it a vital theme for understanding medieval Indian art history in the UPSC History Optional syllabus.
