Hoysalas: Polity and Administration
The Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra, one of the most significant powers of medieval Karnataka, rose from feudatory origins under the Western Gangas to build an independent kingdom that dominated large parts of South India between the 11th and 14th centuries. For UPSC History Optional aspirants, the Hoysalas are important both for their political history — marked by shifting conflict and alliance with the Cholas, Pandyas, and the Chalukyas of Kalyani, and their eventual collapse before the advance of the Delhi Sultanate — and for their sophisticated system of polity and administration, distinctive land revenue and trade practices, and rich contributions to religion, society, and Kannada literature. This article traces the historical background of the Hoysala dynasty before examining in detail its polity and administration, and its culture, covering religion, society, and literature.
Historical Background of the Hoysala Dynasty
- The Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra, as they are known to history, originated in the Kannadiga region and rose to prominence in South India between the 11th and 14th centuries; Belur was initially the centre of their activities, before the capital later shifted to Halebidu.
- Several regional powers were significant at the time, most notably the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani and the Cholas, along with the Pandyas, Kakatiyas, Kalachuris, and the Yadavas of Devagiri (northern Karnataka).
- The Hoysalas’ rise to power was facilitated by the declining power and authority of the Cholas and Pandyas; the dynasty itself began as feudatories of the Western Gangas.
- Nripa Kama II, ruler of the Western Gangas, subdued a number of chiefs from the Malnad region of Karnataka, including the Kongalvas and Chengalvas, as well as the Sandharas and Kadambas of Humcha, Shimoga, and Bayal-nadu (Wynad).
- One account describes Bayal-nadu as having been part of Ballala I’s kingdom; however, this claim is not correct.
- Vishnuvardhana, however, was the real founder of the dynasty. An Ariskere inscription of 1197 CE describes him as “a devouring epidemic to Chera,” while a record of 1190 CE calls him the one who “broke down the bones of Cera-Kerala.”
- He annexed Ananale, a small kingdom in the Western Ghats, Elumale (modern Ezhimala, near Kannur, the centre of Mushaka power), and Bayal-nadu (Wynad).
- The borders of Belur’s kingdom in 1185 CE are described as “Kongu on its south, Kanchi on its east, the Krishna and Venna rivers on its north, and the Arabian Sea on its west.”
- Inscriptions show that the Cholas and Pandyas had lost all their power by this time and were completely subordinated to the Hoysalas.
- As Hoysala pressure mounted on the last Perumal of Mahodayapuram, he moved his base to Kurakeni Kolam.
- Narasimha I, the son and successor of Vishnuvardhana, expanded the boundaries of the Hoysala kingdom still further, adding Vikramesvaram (Ramesvaram) to the kingdom.
- He also held Kongu (Coimbatore), while Bayal-nadu, bordering the Western Ghats, remained part of his territory — indicating that Hoysala power had come to overrun the Kerala region during his reign.
- Narasimha II’s reign was marked by an important friendship between the Cholas and the Hoysalas.
- Narasimha II married his daughter to Rajaraja II, a Chola king who was in love with her (recorded as reigning 1216–1256 CE); this alliance helped keep the Pandyas at bay from the Cholas.
- The Pandyas may have received support from petty chieftains in Kerala around this time, which may have prompted Hoysala attacks in the region — a possibility indicated by the Channarayapatna record of 1223 CE.
- Somesvara was the Hoysalas’ last powerful king.
- An Arsikere inscription of 1239 CE calls him the “sole protector of the Chola-kula.”
- By 1229 CE, the Hoysala kingdom had expanded to Kanchi in the east, Belur in the west, and the Krishna River in the north, with Bayal-nadu (Wynad) marking its southern extent.
- Narasimha II granted all the Chera territories to his son-in-law, the Chola king Rajaraja Chola III.
- A 1252 CE inscription from Arkalgud taluk in Hassan district describes Somesvara as “a lion to the deer Kulothunga-Chola and to the chief of Kerala.”
- Somesvara divided his kingdom between his son Narasimha III, who ruled from Halebidu, and Narasimha III’s half-brother Ramnath (who ruled from Kannanur).
- Under Ballala III, the final signs of disintegration began to appear: in 1310–1311 CE, Alauddin’s forces, led by Malik Kafur, overran Hoysala territories, forcing Ballala III to shift his base to Tiruvannamalai.
Polity and Administration
King and His Officials
- The king stood at the head of the kingdom; his role was “to stop the bad and protect the good.” He was the highest authority and the final court of appeal, and personally attended to all matters of justice.
- “Crowned queens” wielded considerable power in the Hoysala kingdom — they maintained their own ministers and stewards and, on occasion, even led military campaigns in their own right, though as separate authorities from the king. “Uncrowned queens,” by contrast, held no such power.
- The Yuvaraja (heir apparent) was next in line to the throne, acting as second-in-command and sometimes as a governor; however, he held no greater power than the dannayakas/dandanayakas.
- Mandaleshvaras were subordinate princes who had, at one time, been either independent rulers or feudal lords of the Chalukyas or Rashtrakutas; in status, they were almost comparable to the “crowned queens.”
- Below the Mandaleshvaras were the Mandalikas, usually minor rulers, followed by the Samantas — frontier chiefs who governed hereditary lands.
- Within the bureaucracy, the dannayakas/dandanayakas held the highest position in the official hierarchy, also serving as army generals and holding other important offices.
- The king periodically sought the counsel of the Maha-pradhans, and specially chosen officials were given resonant titles such as sarvadhikari, param-visvasi, and bahattara-niyogadhipati (“master of 72”).
- Nayaks commanded the infantry and cavalry.
- The king also despatched inspectors to monitor the dannayakas, along with officials called Vicaris.
- The Sandhi-vigrahi was the minister of foreign affairs, responsible for forging alliances, waging war, and negotiating with rulers of other territories.
- While the king remained the ultimate authority over military campaigns, generals were often placed in charge of them, holding the rank of senapati (commander) or samasta-senadhipati (commander-in-chief); these officials were usually Brahmanas.
- After battles, commanders were honoured with badges of distinction, one such honour being the ceremonial granting of betel-leaf. Tax-free grants were also made to support the wives and children of generals who died in battle.
- Inscriptions say relatively little about the sabhas (assemblies of Brahmanas), though they do mention numerous non-Brahmana villages, called urs, and kaluvallis (hamlets), where most of the population lived; the nadu (district) was administered by officials such as the nad-heggade (sheriff) and the nad-prabhu (deputy sheriff).
- Pattanas were market towns where people came from all around to buy and sell goods; these pattanas are known to have had nanadesi (itinerant merchant) guilds operating within them.
- We also hear of pattana-svamis (mayors) of these towns, though they were not the only civic officials; some pattanas — termed rajadhani-pattanas — were indeed large cities.
- Strict punishments were meted out to wrongdoers, and armed guards were often employed to keep the roads safe.
- If crops were damaged by marching forces during military campaigns, compensation was paid for the damage.
Land Revenue
- Land revenue constituted a major source of state income; land tax was typically paid either in cash or in kind.
- The permanent land-revenue settlement was known as siddhaya, ranging from one-sixth to one-seventh of the gross produce.
- Land was measured using kambas, which varied from place to place; beyond this, commoners faced a long and ever-expanding list of taxes.
- These included a war tax (vira-sese) and a separate charge for fodder and horse contributions (kudureya-sese) toward the king’s horses during campaigns, along with separate levies for the king’s troops.
- Similarly, aneya-sese funded the upkeep of the royal elephants, while peasants were required to supply paddy to provision the king’s troops; kataka-sese was a levy in the form of a gift for the royal camp.
- People were also required to fund the king’s supply of cows and bullocks for his campaigns, a levy known as nallavu-nallettu.
- Other taxes were levied on occasions such as the coronation (patta-baddha) and the birth of a son (putrotsaha).
- Judicial fines, called anyaya, formed another source of state revenue for lawbreakers.
- Additional local taxes and fines — known as “nad taxes” — were imposed by the nad assemblies with royal sanction on landowners, and included the maduve tax (marriage tax), loom tax, oil-press tax, dyer tax, and others.
- Agrahara villages were granted to Brahmanas for their upkeep, and the Hoysala inscriptions refer to such agrahara villages more than a hundred times.
- However, resistance sometimes arose to converting non-agrahara land into an agrahara: when the land of one of the gaudas (rich landlords) was converted in this way, the gaudas resisted, leading to a conflict between the gaudas and the Brahmanas, which the Brahmanas won.
- Considerable land was also granted for the repair and upkeep of temples, extended to people of all religions and sects irrespective of the king’s own religious persuasion.
Trade, Merchants and the State
- Trade and commerce, alongside agriculture, formed another important source of state revenue; taxes on goods were usually paid in cash.
- The state depended heavily on merchants for the supply of arms, elephants, horses, and other valuable and rare goods, which fostered a close relationship between the state and the merchant community.
- Some rich merchants were granted titles such as Rajasresthigal (“royal merchants”) and were regarded as important pillars of their towns (pura mula stambha). Ayyavole Ainnuruvar, for instance, was a merchant active in Karnataka, with trading contacts extending to Anga, Vanga, Kashmira, Singhala, and Chakragotta.
- Merchants were even appointed to administrative roles in the nadus, towns, and other units, and some appear to have taken part in military campaigns — the Ballaru inscription records that Nagrasetti died in the Battle of Sige in 1145 CE.
- Numerous merchants from Gujarat, Kerala, and Andhra settled in Hoysala territory and played a significant role as administrators.
- Marisetti of Ayyavole, a bangle merchant, is mentioned in the Kudalaru inscription (1177–78 CE); he moved to Hoysala country and established a business there, and was styled mahaprabhu (“great officer”).
- His great-grandson, Perumadideva, was styled mahapradhan (“great minister”) and tantrapala (“foreign minister”) by Ballala II.
- Inscriptions show that such merchants sometimes rose to the rank of pattanasvami/pattanasetti and were even placed in charge of minting coins — a 1188 CE document records one such figure as Kammata (mint) Chattisetti.
- These merchants also donated generously to temples and helped fund their construction and repair.
- A 1117 CE inscription records that the mothers of two royal merchants built a Jaina temple.
- The Dyampura inscription similarly records that, in 1188, Vankagavuda, son of Bammisetti, built the Bammeshvara temple on his own.
- Merchants also played a significant role in land reclamation, digging wells, building tanks, and other irrigation projects — Sakayya, son of Palagesetti, excavated the Arapamma tank and built a sluice at Sirivur in 1027 CE.
- Merchants played a larger role in temple construction in the Hoysala state during the 12th and 13th centuries than in the 11th century, suggesting a growing involvement and influence over time.
Culture
Religion
- The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga dynasty by the Cholas in the early 11th century, together with the rising numbers of Vaishnava Hindu and Virashaiva followers in the 12th century, mirrored a general decline in interest in Jainism.
- Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli remained two notable centres of Jain worship in Hoysala territory.
- The decline of Buddhism in South India had begun in the 8th century with the spread of Adi Shankara’s Advaita philosophy; by the Hoysala period, Dambal and Balligavi remained the only centres of Buddhist worship.
- Shantala Devi, queen of Vishnuvardhana, professed Jainism yet commissioned the Hindu Kappe Chennigaraya temple at Belur — evidence that the royal family tolerated all religions.
- During the rule of the Hoysalas, three important religious developments took place in present-day Karnataka, inspired by three philosophers: Basavanna, Madhvacharya, and Ramanujacharya.
- While scholars debate the origin of the Virashaiva faith, they agree that the movement grew through its association with Basavanna in the 12th century. Some scholars argue that five earlier saints — Renuka, Daruka, Ekorama, Panditharadhya, and Vishwaradhya — founded Virashaivism, a sect that preaches devotion to Lord Shiva.
- Basavanna and other Virashaiva saints preached a faith without a caste system; in his Vachanas, he appealed to the masses in simple Kannada, writing “work is worship” (Kayakave Kailasa).
- Madhvacharya took a critical stance toward the teachings of Shankaracharya, arguing that the world was real rather than illusory. He upheld the virtues of Lord Vishnu, propounding the Dvaita philosophy (dualism) while condemning Shankaracharya’s mayavada (illusionism), and maintained a distinction between Paramatma (the supreme being) and the dependent principle of life.
- His philosophy gained such popularity that he was able to establish eight Mathas (monasteries) at Udupi.
- Ramanujacharya, head of the Vaishnava monastery at Srirangam, preached the path of devotion (bhakti marga) and wrote the Sribhashya, a critique of Adi Shankara’s Advaita philosophy.
- Those religious developments had a profound impact on culture, literature, poetry, and architecture in South India; scholars wrote important works of literature and poetry based on the teachings of these philosophers over the coming centuries.
- The Saluva, Tuluva, and Aravidu dynasties of the Vijayanagara empire followed Vaishnavism; a Vaishnava temple with an image of Ramanujacharya still stands in the Vitthalapura area of Vijayanagara, and scholars of the later Mysore Kingdom wrote Vaishnavite works upholding his teachings.
- King Vishnuvardhana built many temples following his conversion from Jainism to Vaishnavism.
- The later saints of Madhvacharya’s order — Jayatirtha, Vyasatirtha, Sripadaraya, and Vadirajatirtha — along with devotees (dasa) such as Vijaya Dasa and Gopaladasa, and others from the Karnataka region, spread his teachings far and wide.
- His teachings went on to inspire later philosophers such as Vallabhacharya in Gujarat and Chaitanya in Bengal, and a further wave of bhakti devotion in the 17th–18th centuries also drew inspiration from his teachings.
Society
- Hoysala society in many ways reflected the emerging religious, political, and cultural developments of the times; as society grew increasingly sophisticated, the status of women varied.
- Some royal women were involved in administrative matters, as shown by contemporary records describing Queen Umadevi’s administration of Halebidu during Veera Ballala II’s long military campaigns in northern territories; she also fought and defeated some antagonistic feudal rebels.
- This stood in stark contrast to the literature of the time — such as Bilhana’s Vikramankadeva Charita — which portrayed women as retiring, overly romantic, and unconcerned with affairs of state.
- Records describe the participation of women in the fine arts, such as Queen Shantala Devi’s skill in dance and music, and the 12th-century Vachana poet and Virashaiva mystic Akka Mahadevi’s famed devotion to the bhakti movement — she is regarded both as a pioneer of women’s emancipation and as an example of a transcendental world-view.
- Temple dancers (Devadasis), well educated and accomplished in the arts, commonly performed in temples; these qualifications gave them greater freedom than other urban and rural women, who remained occupied with daily mundane tasks.
- As in most of India, the caste system prevailed in Hoysala society.
- Trade on the west coast brought many foreigners to India, including Arabs, Jews, Persians, Chinese, and people from the Malay Peninsula; migration of people within Southern India, as a result of the expansion of the empire, produced an influx of new cultures and skills.
- Royal patronage of education, arts, architecture, and religion, along with the establishment of new forts and military outposts, caused the large-scale relocation of people.
- In South India, towns known as Pattana or Pattanam, and marketplaces known as Nagara or Nagaram, served as the nuclei of a city.
- Some towns, such as Shravanabelagola, developed from a religious settlement in the 7th century into an important trading centre by the 12th century with the arrival of rich traders, while towns like Belur attained the atmosphere of a regal city when King Vishnuvardhana built the Chennakesava Temple there.
- Large temples supported by royal patronage served religious, social, and judiciary purposes, elevating the king to the level of “God on earth.”
- Temple building served a commercial as well as a religious function, open to all Hindu sects.
- Shaiva merchants of Halebidu financed the construction of the Hoysaleswara temple to compete with the Chennakesava temple built at Belur, elevating Halebidu to an important city as well.
- Hoysala temples, though largely secular in orientation, welcomed pilgrims of all Hindu sects — the Kesava temple at Somanathapura being an exception, with its strictly Vaishnava sculptural depictions.
- Temples built by rich landlords in rural areas fulfilled the fiscal, political, cultural, and religious needs of agrarian communities; irrespective of patronage, large temples provided employment to hundreds of people across various guilds and professions, sustaining local communities much as Hindu temples came to take on the character of wealthy Buddhist monasteries.
Literature
- Although Sanskrit literature remained popular under Hoysala rule, royal patronage of local Kannada scholars increased.
- In the 12th century, some scholars continued to write in the Champu mixed prose-verse style, though distinctive Kannada metres became more widely accepted — the Sangatya metre in compositions, the Shatpadi and Tripadi metres in verse (seven-line and three-line, respectively), and Ragale (lyrical poems) all came into fashion.
- Jain works continued to extol the virtues of the Tirthankaras (Jain ascetics).
- The Hoysala court supported scholars such as Janna, Rudrabhatta, Harihara, and his nephew Raghavanka, whose works endure as masterpieces of Kannada literature.
- In 1209, the Jain scholar Janna wrote the Yashodharacharite, the story of a king who intends to perform a ritual sacrifice of two young boys to a local deity, Mariamma; taking pity on the boys, the king releases them and gives up the practice of human sacrifice. In honour of that work, Janna received the title “Emperor among poets” (Kavichakravarthi) from King Veera Ballala II.
- Rudrabhatta, a Smartha Brahmin (a believer in monistic philosophy), represents the earliest well-known Brahminical writer; Chandramouli, a minister of King Veera Ballala II, became his patron. Based on the earlier Vishnu Purana, he wrote the Jagannatha Vijaya in the Champu style, relating the life of Lord Krishna up to his fight with the demon Banasura.
- Harihara (also known as Harisvara), a Virashaiva writer patronised by King Narasimha I, wrote the Girijakalyana in the old Jain Champu style, describing the marriage of Lord Shiva and Parvati across ten sections — one of the earliest Virashaiva writers independent of the Vachana literary tradition.
- He came from a family of accountants (Karanikas) from Halebidu and spent many years in Hampi writing more than a hundred Ragales (poems in blank verse) in praise of Lord Virupaksha (a form of Lord Shiva).
- Raghavanka was the first to introduce the Shatpadi metre into Kannada literature, in his Harishchandra kavya — considered a classic even though it occasionally violates strict rules of Kannada grammar.
- In Sanskrit, the philosopher Madhvacharya wrote the Rigbhashya on the Brahmasutras (a logical explanation of the Hindu scriptures, the Vedas), as well as many polemical works rebutting the doctrines of other schools of thought on the Vedas; he relied more on Puranic literature than on the Vedas for logical proof of his philosophy.
- Vidyatirtha’s Rudraprashnabhashya represents another famous work.
