Early Harappan Sites

The Indus Valley Civilization: Early Harappan Phase (c. 3300 – 2600 BCE)

Surkotda (Gujarat)

• Location
  • Located in Kutch district, Gujarat.
  • Lies on the land route to Lothal (important for trade).
• Cultural Context
  • Early Harappan Sites, with evidence of mature and late Harappan phases.
  • Shows regional variation in Harappan architecture and materials.
• Architecture and Settlement Pattern
  • Use of mud bricks and stone rubble in construction.
  • Fortified settlement structure indicating urban planning.
• Important Artefacts
  • Terracotta seal with Harappan script, notably without animal motif.
  • Beads made of steatite and carnelian, indicating craft activity.
• Faunal Remains
  • Horse-like skeleton found — rare and debated evidence for horse in Harappan context.
  • Elephant bone also discovered.
• Trade Indications
  • Evidence of coastal and inland trade during Harappan period.

Harappa

• Location
  • Located in Punjab, Pakistan, on the left bank of the Ravi River.
  • The first discovered site of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) (by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921).
• Chronology
  • Evidence of Early, Mature, and Late Harappan phases.
• Urban Features
  • Grid-pattern town planning with differentiated living quarters.
  • Flat-roofed brick houses, often with private wells and toilets.
  • Citadel and lower town division with fortification.
  • Row of six granaries discovered — possibly used for surplus grain storage.
  • Bronze smelting activity confirmed.
• Burial Practices
  • Only IVC site with coffin burial evidence.
  • Fractional burial also noted.
  • Grave goods found along with burials (ceramics, ornaments).
  • Cemetery-H indicates presence of foreign or intrusive people, possibly later migrants.
• Crafts and Artifacts
  • Seals, including those with pictographic script and unicorn motifs.
  • Stone figurines:
    • Male torso (nude, red sandstone)
    • Female figure in dancing pose (possibly a prototype of the bronze “Dancing Girl” of Mohenjo-daro)
• Economic and Trade Activity
  • Agricultural surplus sustained urban life.
  • Trade contacts with Mesopotamia, especially Sumer (Southern Mesopotamia) — Mesopotamian records mention trade with “Meluhha” (believed to be the Indus region).

Allhadino

• Location
  • Situated near Karachi, in present-day Sindh, Pakistan.
  • A coastal site of the Indus Valley Civilization.
• Site Type
  • A small, unfortified village settlement.
  • Likely served as a satellite or rural outpost supporting larger urban centers.
• Structural Features
  • Mud-brick houses found.
  • Wells with narrow diameters discovered:
    • Possibly designed to increase groundwater pressure.
    • May have supported local irrigation, suggesting small-scale agriculture.
• Significance
  • Reflects hydraulic knowledge and adaptation to coastal ecological conditions.
  • Demonstrates rural-urban linkage within the IVC economic system.

Amri

• Location
  • Situated in Sindh, Pakistan, near the western bank of the Indus River.
  • Close to the Kirthar Hills, marking its importance as a gateway between Baluchistan and the Indus Valley.
• Cultural Phases
  • Exhibits both Pre-Harappan (Amri Culture) and Mature Harappan levels.
  • Important for showing a clear transition from regional Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture to urban Harappan phase.
• Settlement Features
  • Mud-brick and stone structures.
  • Cellular compartments used for grain storage, indicating organized agrarian economy.
• Artefacts and Tools
  • Chert blades, microliths, bone tools, stone balls.
  • Fragments of copper and bronze, marking early metallurgy.
  • Triangular terracotta cakes and terracotta figurines.
• Pottery
  • Handmade and wheel-made wares.
  • Decorated with geometric painted designs.
  • Includes monochrome and polychrome pottery types.
• Significance
  • Type site of the Amri Culture, one of the early regional cultures predating the Harappan urbanism.
  • Played a strategic role in trade and cultural transmission between Baluchistan and Harappan cities.

Kot Diji

• Location
  • Located in Khairpur district, Sindh, Pakistan, on the east bank of the Indus River.
  • Opposite Mohenjodaro; near Amri.
• Cultural Phases
  • Early Harappan (Kot Diji Phase): c. 2800–2600 BCE.
  • Followed by Mature Harappan phase, making it a type site for early Harappan urban evolution.
  • A burnt deposit found between early and mature phases (also at Gumla) suggests a major destructive fire.
• Settlement Features
  • Fortified site: stone and mud-brick wall with bastions, enclosing a citadel and lower residential area.
  • House walls built with stone and mud-brick, showing early urban planning concepts.
• Material Culture and Artefacts
  • Tools and objects made of stone, shell, bone, and copper.
  • Terracotta figurines, including a bull.
  • Bangles, toy carts, beads, and evidence of metal casting and bead-making workshops.
• Pottery
  • Wheel-made pottery, typically red ware with black-painted geometric designs.
  • Specific pottery types include short-necked ovoid pots, painted with motifs like:
    • Horned deity
    • Pipal leaves
    • Fish scales
• Significance
  • Demonstrates transition from rural Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture to urban Harappan life.
  • Shows early use of fortifications, organized craft production, and symbolic art.

Mehrgarh

• Location
  • Located in Baluchistan, Pakistan, near the Bolan Pass.
  • Strategically situated between the Iranian plateau and the Indus Valley.
• Cultural Phase
  • A Neolithic and Chalcolithic site, dating from 7000 BCE onwards.
  • Precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization; abandoned with rise of Harappan urban centers.
• Neolithic Phase (Aceramic)
  • Planned farming village with mud-brick houses (later sun-dried bricks).
  • Bone tools used; no pottery in early phase (aceramic).
  • Small-scale agriculture (wheat, barley) and animal domestication (cattle, sheep, goats).
  • One of the earliest sites for cultivation of cotton in the world.
  • Evidence of fishing in nearby water sources.
  • Practiced pastoralism along with agriculture.
• Chalcolithic Phase
  • Introduction of pottery and copper tools.
  • Continued craft production and development of trade networks.
• Unique Discoveries
  • Earliest evidence of dental surgery in South Asia (drilled molar teeth).
  • Terracotta figurines of humans and animals indicate symbolic or ritual activity.
  • Presence of turquoise beads, shell bangles, lapis lazuli indicates long-distance trade and craft specialization.

Kalibangan

• Location
  • Located in Hanumangarh district, Rajasthan, on the southern bank of the Ghaggar River.
  • Lies in the semi-arid zone of the Thar Desert.
• Cultural Phases
  • Contains both Pre-Harappan and Harappan layers.
• Pre-Harappan Phase
  • Use of copper and handmade pottery.
  • No writing system.
  • Settlement lacked grid-planning; less organized layout.
  • Sun-dried bricks used in construction.
• Harappan Phase
  • Fortified citadel and lower town (both separately fortified).
  • Use of mud and burnt bricks for structures.
  • Grid-pattern town planning.
  • Burnt bricks used in drains, wells, bathing platforms, and fire altars.
  • Presence of cemetery and residential structures.
• Important Archaeological Features
  • Fire altars:
    • Rectangular and lined with bricks.
    • Suggest practice of fire worship.
  • Ploughed field:
    • World’s earliest known ploughed field with criss-cross furrow pattern.
    • Indicates multi-cropping and intercropping (possibly oilseeds and pulses).
  • Seals:
    • Rectangular and cylindrical types.
  • Pottery:
    • Wheel-made red ware used for domestic, ritualistic, and burial purposes.
  • Burials:
    • Both pit burial and urn burial types found.
  • Other artefacts:
    • Terracotta bangles, bull figurines, and household items.

Rakhigarhi

• Location
  • In Hisar district, Haryana.
  • Largest Indus Valley Civilization site (approx. 550 hectares) — bigger than Mohenjo-Daro.
• Cultural Phases
  • Evidence of Early and Mature Harappan phases.
  • Continuous habitation from 5000 BCE to 1900 BCE.
• Urban Features
  • Grid-pattern township with planned layout.
  • Mud-brick and burnt-brick houses.
  • Advanced drainage system.
• Pottery
  • Red ware pottery.
  • Includes dish-on-stand, vase, jar, bowl, beaker, and perforated jars.
• Craft Production
  • Presence of a jewelry-making unit (copper, bronze, gold ornaments).
  • Terracotta figurines, seals, semi-finished beads, and toy carts.
  • Inscribed steatite seals and sealings.
• Artefacts
  • Cylindrical seal with five Harappan characters.
  • Blades, bone points, terracotta and shell bangles.
  • Animal figurines, terracotta wheel, copper objects.
• Religious/Ritual Evidence
  • Animal sacrificial pit and circular fire altars — ritual significance.
• Subsistence
  • Cultivation of wheat, barley, peas.
  • Domesticated cattle and buffalo.
• Genetic Significance
  • DNA from human remains suggests genetic continuity since 10,000 BCE.
  • Challenges older theories of massive migrations into the subcontinent.

Banawali

• Location
  • In Hisar district, Haryana, near the Rangoi River.
• Cultural Phases
  • Evidence of Early, Mature, and Late Harappan phases.
• Urban Features
  • Fortified settlement with a citadel and lower town, separated by a wall.
  • Mud-brick and burnt-brick houses with hearths.
  • Storage pits found in house courtyards.
  • Burnt bricks used in wells, bathing pavements, and drains.
  • A multi-roomed house indicates presence of urban elite or merchant class.
• Religious Features
  • Presence of fire altars, indicating possible ritual practices.
• Artefacts
  • Stone weights, terracotta ploughs, female figurines (possibly religious).
  • Beads of gold, lapis lazuli, carnelian.
  • Tiny weights suggesting trade and commerce.
• Decline
  • In the Late Harappan phase, sudden decline is evident.
  • Settlement continued with mud houses and diverse artefacts but without planned urbanism.

Mundigak

• Location
  • Located in Kandahar province, Afghanistan.
• Cultural Phases
  • Evidence of Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Harappan contact phases.
• Material Culture
  • Painted pottery depicting sacred fig leaves, tiger-like animal motifs.
  • Artefacts include humped bull figurines, human figurines, shaft-hole axes, and terracotta drains.
• Harappan Phase (Mature)
  • Excavations revealed a palace, a temple, and a city wall, indicating urban planning and Harappan influence.

Kulli

• Location: Southern Balochistan, Pakistan.
• Cultural Link: Belongs to the Kulli Culture (c. 2500–2000 BCE), which overlaps with Mature Harappan culture.
• Pottery: Fine black-on-red ware with painted motifs—especially of zebu bulls, peacocks, and pipal leaves.
• Artefacts: Terracotta figurines, including mother goddess and bulls, similar to Harappan styles.
• Agriculture: Use of dams and irrigation tanks, indicating developed water management.
• Significance: Reflects a regional variant of the Indus Valley Civilization with distinct ceramic and cultural traits.

Balakot

• Location: Near Sonmiani Bay, Makran coast, Balochistan, Pakistan.
• Early Harappan Site: Dates to c. 3500–2500 BCE.
• Architecture: Use of stone and mud-brick structures.
• Pottery: Handmade and wheel-made, including Balakot Ware—black-on-red slip with geometric patterns.
• Craft: Evidence of bead-making, shell working, and lapis lazuli trade.
• Significance: Important coastal site showing early trade and Harappan contact.

Sarai Khola

• Location: Near Taxila, Punjab province, Pakistan.
• Chalcolithic and Early Harappan site.
• Tools: Microliths and copper artefacts.
• Pottery: Red ware, painted and incised.
• Agriculture: Evidence of wheat and barley cultivation.
• Importance: Among the few excavated pre-Harappan and early agricultural sites in the Potwar plateau.

Gumla

• Location: Rajasthan, near the Aravallis; linked to Ganeshwar–Jodhpura culture.
• Phase: Early Harappan.
• Artefacts: Large number of copper tools, red ware pottery.
• Metalworking: Smelting of copper likely done at site; linked to Khetri copper belt.
• Significance: Served as a metal supplier to Harappan sites.

Rana Ghundai

• Location: Northern Balochistan, Pakistan.
• Multi-phase site: From Neolithic to Early Harappan.
• Early Settlement: Mud-brick houses, simple pottery.
• Later Phase: Black-on-red painted pottery, terracotta figurines.
• Significance: Represents early transition from rural Neolithic to Chalcolithic societies, possibly contributing to Harappan cultural zone.

Dholavira

• Location: In Kutch district, Gujarat; located on Khadir Island in the Rann of Kutch.
• Urban Layout:
  • City divided into three parts: Citadel, Middle Town, and Lower Town — a unique tripartite layout in Harappan civilization.
  • Fortified city with elaborate gateways and bastions.
• Water Management:
  • Sophisticated water conservation system with stepwells, stone reservoirs, and channels — adapted to arid environment.
  • Use of stone masonry in constructing water structures (unlike mud bricks elsewhere).
• Significant Discoveries:
  • Dholavira Signboard: 10 large Indus script characters on a wooden board inlaid with gypsum — longest Indus script inscription found so far.
  • Seals: Square stamp seals found; some without Indus script.
  • Painted Black-and-Red Ware (BRW).
  • Seven hemispherical structures — interpreted as possible memorial or mortuary structures.
• Trade & Connectivity:
  • Located on an ancient trade route connecting Lothal and Dholavira to Sutkagan Dor (on the Makran coast), indicating coastal trade.

Mohenjo-daro

• Location: In Sindh, Pakistan, on the right bank of the Indus River.
• Cultural Phases: Both Early Harappan and Mature Harappan phases.
• Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Town Planning & Architecture

• Divided into two parts:
  • Citadel (western mound):
    • Great Bath — most iconic public water tank structure.
    • Great Granary with brick platforms.
    • Large pillared halls (possibly assembly halls).
  • Lower City:
    • Grid pattern layout.
    • Courtyard-style houses, brick-paved streets.
• Houses:
  • Made of baked bricks, some with multiple storeys (brick staircases).
  • Private wells, bathrooms, covered drainage systems — advanced sanitation.
  • Large public well in central part of the city.

Environment & Decline

• Suffered multiple floods — due to Indus river migration and tectonic uplift.
• Evidence of gradual decline in planning and structure in later phases.

Important Artefacts

• Bronze Dancing Girl — iconic example of lost-wax casting.
• Priest King Statue — steatite sculpture, bearded male figure.
• Pashupati Seal — depicts a horned deity in yogic posture (proto-Shiva interpretation).
• Jewelry: Seven-stranded necklace, gold, lapis lazuli, carnelian, ivory beads.
• Tools and other finds: Terracotta figurines, chert blades, weights, seals with Indus script.

Bhirrana

• Location: Fatehabad district, Haryana, on the banks of the Saraswati (Ghaggar) River.
• Cultural Sequence
  • Exhibits all four cultural phases of the Indus Valley Civilization:
    • Pre-Harappan (Hakra phase)
    • Early Harappan
    • Mature Harappan
    • Late Harappan
• Chronological Significance
  • Considered the oldest Harappan site excavated till date by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
  • Radiocarbon dating (C-14) suggests earliest layers date to circa 7570 BCE, pushing back IVC origins.
• Key Findings
  • Pottery: Hakra ware and mature Harappan red ware.
  • Structures: Mud-brick houses, streets, drains—urban planning evident even in early phases.
  • Artefacts: Terracotta figurines, stone tools, beads, bangles, toy carts.
  • Agriculture: Evidence of wheat, barley, and millets, indicating early agricultural practices.
• Importance
  • Crucial for understanding the pre-Harappan cultural development.
  • Supports indigenous origin theory of the Harappan Civilization in the Saraswati-Ghaggar basin.

Nal

• Location: Near Naal village in Baluchistan, Pakistan, southwest of Quetta.
• Cultural Phase:
  • Belongs to Chalcolithic period, around 3100–2700 BCE.
  • Associated with the Nal culture, which is distinct yet shows some links with Mehrgarh and Amri traditions.
• Key Features:
  • Pottery:
    • Highly polished and painted ware.
    • Noted for fine polychrome pottery with complex geometric and naturalistic motifs (e.g., birds, animals, flowers).
    • Rich use of black, red, and white colors.
  • Artefacts:
    • Terracotta figurines, bangles, beads of steatite and semi-precious stones.
    • Copper objects found in limited quantity.
  • Architecture:
    • Mud-brick structures and storage facilities.
    • Evidence of planned settlements.
• Significance
  • Indicates craft specialization and regional trade networks.
  • Represents an advanced Chalcolithic culture of Balochistan.
  • Important for studying early cultural diversity in the Indus periphery zone before the rise of mature Harappan urbanism.